| Crop Damage by Wild Animalssection i general | | | | and residential location have minor or no impact |
| discussions | | | | on preferences. Property damage, crop loss, |
| G.M. Wani | | | | landscape damage, and car accidents appear to |
| Ph.D ; D.V.M (Germany) | | | | be the biggest concerns ( Curtis et al 2001). |
| FN ISSGAPU, FN DAAD | | | | Â |
| Director Extension Education / SAMETI | | | | 11. Sika deer population in Japan |
| Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Sika deer |
| and Technology of Kashmir | | | | Cervus nippon population in eastern Hokkaido, |
| Shalimar, Srinagar, 191121 | | | | Japan, increased rapidly during 1990-1998 . This |
| Â | | | | increase appeared to have halted in 1999-2000, |
| Â | | | | probably due to increased hunting and nuisance |
| Â | | | | control. The period of rapid increase was |
| A brief global review to asses the damage caused | | | | associated with a disproportionately rapid increase |
| to cultivated crops by wild animals around the | | | | in compensation paid for deer damage to crops. |
| world. The review was attempted in response to | | | | We studied changes in diet during 1990-2000, as |
| a recommendation of ICAR Regional Committee | | | | reflected by stable isotope ratios of C and N in |
| No.1 held in Oct, 2007 at Solan, H.p. presided over | | | | tooth collagen. We hypothesized that isotope |
| by Hon'ble Director General, ICAR Dr. Mangala Rai | | | | ratios would demonstrate dietary shifts related to |
| inauguration was chaired by Hon'ble Agriculture | | | | population levels and/or time, and that shifts in |
| Minister J&K, Jenab Ab. Aziz Zargar. | | | | isotope ratios would be consistent with increasing |
|            | | | | individual consumption of pasture grasses at |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â | | | | higher population levels, delta 13C isotope ratios of |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â | | | | tooth collagen in 3 year-old sika indicated a diet |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â | | | | dominated by C3 plants throughout the period, |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â | | | | and that forage species other than pasture |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Author | | | | grasses and dwarf bamboo Sasa nipponica ( the |
|  | | | | main crop and woodland understory plants, |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â | | | | respectively) were important elements. There |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â | | | | was a significant decline in the delta 13C isotope |
|            | | | | ratio during 1990-2000 in both males and |
| Â Â | | | | females, delta 15N values showed no trend with |
| Â | | | | time for males, but increased over time in |
| Â | | | | females. Indices of population (Sightings per Unit |
| Â | | | | Effort, SPUE) were negatively correlated with |
| Published by:Â Director State Agricultural | | | | female delta 13C, and positively correlated with |
| Management and Extension Training Institute of | | | | female delta 15N, values indicating a shift in diet |
| Kashmir (SAMETI-K) , SKUAST-K , Shalimar , | | | | over the period , especially among females. This |
| Post Box: 461, G.P.O, Srinagar. | | | | shift may be related to population and/or offtake |
|  | | | | levels, in particular the rapid increase in female |
| Â | | | | offtake for nuisance control and hunting during the |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â | | | | period. The data are consistent with a relative |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Publication | | | | increase in pasture grass consumption per |
| No: SAMETI/Pub/3/1000/January, 2008 | | | | individual at higher population levels, however, |
|  | | | | other explanations of the data are equally |
| Â | | | | plausible. Possible dietary changes, and other |
| Â | | | | factors, influencing the observed shift in isotope |
| P.O.Box: 461, GPO, Srinagar, E.Mail: Â Â Â | | | | ratios are discussed. Although statistically |
|       Phone:    | | | | significant, the magnitude of dietary shifts |
| Â Â | | | | nevertheless appeared small, and did not provide |
| 0194-2461317,0194-2463460,0194-2463459Â | | | | evidence which would justify modifying the |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Cell: Â | | | | current policy, of limiting crop damage through |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â 09419095342Â ; | | | | managed population reduction to about 25% of |
| Residence:0194-2431508,2435741 | | | | peak levels( Halley et al 2006). |
| Â | | | | Â |
|  | | | | 12. White-tailed deer damages |
| Â | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â |
| Introduction: | | | | White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) may |
| Â | | | | cause more damage than any other species of |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Wild animal-human | | | | wildlife. These damages include crop loss, |
| conflicts have started since beginning of human | | | | automobile and aviation collisions, disease |
| era from Adam and Eve. This conflict of | | | | transmission, environmental degradation, and |
| wilderness made man to hide in caves and he | | | | destruction of ornamental plantings. One |
| was called as "Cave man". Slowly, with his | | | | practical method of controlling deer damage is the |
| advancement it is he who invented Axe and | | | | use of exclusionary fences. The relatively high |
| other weapon in stone and iron ages to frighten | | | | cost of labor and materials required to build |
| the wild animals, initially. Later on he hunted them | | | | effective fences has limited most applications to |
| to save himself. This feeling of uncertainty and | | | | the protection of orchards, vegetable farms, |
| fear of wild animals and wilderness reduced with | | | | other high -value resources, and mitigation of |
| the invention of fire. He made sharp weapons of | | | | human health and safety risks. Improvements in |
| bones and iron. These initial weapons were the | | | | fence technology resulting in less expensive, yet |
| beginning of this conflict, Animal human conflict. | | | | effective fence have expanded the use of fence |
| Thirty thousand years ago, the human population | | | | to manage damage caused by deer. Fence |
| rose to 6 million. They were still hunters. With the | | | | typically installed to manage white-tailed deer |
| invention of fire, he set fire a vast majority of | | | | damage include wire or plastic mesh, electrified |
| sanctuaries, which scared wild life and they | | | | high-tensile steel wire, and electrified polytape or |
| migrated from his neighborhood. Many forests, hills | | | | polyrope fence. They reviewed the scientific |
| and difficult terrains were still beyond the reach of | | | | literature on fencing to determine which fence |
| man three thousand years before, although | | | | designs would be the most effective for excluding |
| human population has increased to 60 million. Man | | | | deer in a variety of situations (VerCauteren et al |
| has already started primitive agriculture. He had | | | | 2006). |
| made his terrains and wild life scared by him left | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â The |
| his close habitats and searched for fresh abodes. | | | | installation of fences to protect agricultural |
| Man by now had lust for fur, horns, ornaments | | | | products, natural resources, or other areas from |
| and other forest resources. He invented many | | | | deer (Odocoileus spp.) can be expensive and |
| means to frighten whole wild life. He became a | | | | potential benefits of fencing are difficult to |
| "Danger "not only for wild animals but for his own | | | | quantify. A rational method is needed to help |
| species, environment and eco-biodiversity. | | | | evaluate whether fencing can be cost effective |
| Three hundred years ago he industrialized crop | | | | and which fence designs will be optimal for |
| production and produced enough food, for nearly | | | | particular applications. They describe an interactive, |
| 600 million people. This continued and from 30 | | | | dynamic simulation model that conducts economic |
| year now he is feeding 6000 million people. Today | | | | analyses and predicts economic benefit associated |
| we have a global food security for 7.5 billion. | | | | with fences for crops relative to area and |
| Human food security gains resulted in reduction of | | | | perimeter of protected plot, value of crop, |
| all other wild species, thus, the origin of wild- life- | | | | percentage of crop damaged by deer annually |
| human conflict is the lust of man for more food, | | | | prior to fencing, efficacy of fence, and costs of |
| more luxury or sometimes fun for hunting or fur. | | | | fence materials and labor. Users of the model can |
| This reduced wild life reserves and now a open | | | | easily adjust these variables to fit their individual |
| conflict came into existence. | | | | situations and needs. By running a series of |
| Many man-wild life conflicts have been reported | | | | simulations, model users can answer questions |
| from Gir forests of Gujarat, Rajaji National Park in | | | | related directly to fence efficacy and |
| UP and many other states where forest lands | | | | cost-effectiveness (VerCauteren K et al 2006). |
| became cultivable lands. Elephants, wild boars, | | | | Â |
| monkeys, squirrels, deer , birds like crows, | | | | 13. Corn damage by wild life |
| parakeets, wild dogs, jackals, gaur, sambur, | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Corn |
| langure, fowls, pea cocks, neilgai, Hippos, biats, | | | | damages in USA were estimated at 6.6 per hac |
| blackbirds, rodents, wild pigs, feral species, | | | | due to wild life. The white tailed deer was the wild |
| primates, beetles, foxes, pigeons, feral hogs and a | | | | animal responsible for loss. The average hacters |
| variety of other species damage crops. The | | | | owned by farmers were 125 out of which 55 |
| carnivores even attack human too. These attacks | | | | hectares were sown corn. (Tzilkowsi et al 2002). |
| are for search of food or their loss of habitat. | | | | Â |
| Many such accidents came to be known in | | | | 14. Â Deer Damage |
| Jammu and Kashmir. The bear leopod and other | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Deer |
| wild animals are reducing in number. Their habitats | | | | (Odocoileus spp.) can cause substantial damage to |
| used by human. | | | | agricultural crops, resulting in economic losses for |
| The human causalities are due to carnivorous | | | | producers. They developed a deer activated |
| species, but herbivores inflict economic and human | | | | bio-acoustic frightening device to reduce |
| losses too. The crop damages by wild life has | | | | white-tailed deer (O, virginianus) damage in |
| been the new threat to agricultural productivity | | | | agricultural fields. The device considered of an |
| throughout the world. This also concerns us in | | | | infrared detection system that activated an audio |
| Asia and India. This review is aimed to find out: | | | | component which broadcast recorded distress and |
| 1.      Extent of damage to | | | | alarm calls of deer. They tested the device |
| crops. | | | | against unprotected controls in cornfields during |
| 2.      Nature of crop | | | | the silking-tasseling stage of growth in July 2001. |
| damage | | | | The device was not effective in reducing damage: |
| 3.      Ways and means to | | | | track-count indices (F1,4=0.02), corn yield |
| prevent these losses. | | | | (F1,9=1.27,P=0.289), and estimated damage levels |
| 4.      A strategic planning to | | | | (F1,10=0.87, P=0.374) did not differ between |
| drive a line between wildlife conservation and farm | | | | experimental and control fields. The size |
| economics especially in India. | | | | (F2,26=1,00,P=0.380), location |
| Â | | | | (F2,25=0.39,P=0.684), and percent overlap |
| Executive Abstracts and Strategic elementaries: | | | | (F2,25=0.20,P=0.818) of use-areas of radiomarked |
| [EASE] | | | | female deer did not differ between during and |
| 1.    Importance | | | | after treatment periods. They concluded that the |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â | | | | deer-activated bio-acoustic device was not |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Species causing | | | | effective in protecting cornfields in this study; |
| crop damages ranges from elephant's wild birds, | | | | however, the device may be more effective in |
| monkeys, squirrels, deer, parakeet, wild dogs, | | | | small areas such as gardens or for high value |
| foxes, deer and many others like Neilgai. On an | | | | crops that do not grow tall enough to offer |
| average this damage to crops by wild animals | | | | protective cover (Gilsdorf et al 2004). |
| amounts to U$ 961 per hectare. It is much more | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â White |
| than an Indian Farmer earns from a hacter | | | | -tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) cause millions |
| annually. Therefore, by these estimates, the | | | | of dollars of damage to agricultural crops annually . |
| damages are spectacular and economically | | | | They tested the effectiveness of propane |
| important. | | | | exploders and Electronic Guards (Pocatello Supply |
| 2.      Human Elephant | | | | Depot, Pocatello, Id). For reducing deer damage in |
| conflicts (HEC): | | | | corn fields during the silking-tasseling stage of |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â i) Economic | | | | growth. Track-count indices (F2,7=0.70,P=0.532), |
| Losses: | | | | corn yield (F2,6=0.14, P=0.873), and estimated |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â | | | | damage levels (F2, 12=1,45 P=0.272) did not differ |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Among elephants | | | | between experimental and control fields. The size |
| crop raiding is common. The crops near their | | | | (F2,11=0.08,P =0.924), Location (F2,9=0.30, |
| home ranges are damaged more. Elephants | | | | P=0.750), and percent overlap (F2,9=0.46, |
| damaging crops had twice big ranges than those | | | | P=0.644) of use -areas of radiomarked female |
| who did not damage the crops. Thus, more | | | | deer in the vicinity of experimental fields did not |
| proximity of the crops near their ranges are | | | | differ among before, during and after 18 day |
| prone to crops damages. Train accidents instigate | | | | treatment periods. In a related study, we placed |
| elephants more to crop or human damages. | | | | propane exploders in cornfields within use-areas of |
| Indonesia saw more frequent raids of elephants | | | | 12 radiomarked female deer. The deer did not |
| on crops. Human elephant conflict (HEC) is | | | | react appreciably to the devices; the size (F2, |
| frequent and poses serious challenges in Africa. | | | | 17=0.08, P=0.921), location (F2,22=1.37, P=0.275), |
| Both male groups and family group attacks have | | | | and percent overlap (f2,10=0.47, P=0.636) of deer |
| been observed. HEC losses in West Bengal were | | | | use areas did not differ among before, during, and |
| worth 3.2 croses of Rupees. This damage | | | | after 14 day treatment periods. They conclude |
| occurred in 3368sq kms.radius. The numerical | | | | that propane exploders and Electronic Guards |
| number of elephants was 62 only. Assam | | | | have limited potential for reducing deer damage to |
| observes damages to the woodcutters by | | | | corn at the silking-tasseling stage (Glisdorf et al |
| elephants Asian wild Elephants raid and damage | | | | 2004l. |
| crops in herds of 10-13 individuals or big herds | | | | Â |
| comprising 50-74 elephants. In Darjeeling district | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â A welfare |
| alone over an area of 200 kms. East to west, in | | | | measure for wildlife damage to Ontario (Canada) |
| last two decades 277 houses were demolished by | | | | field crop producers during the 1998 was. The |
| elephants, killing 66 people in 5 districts. As a result | | | | welfare measure presented in this study provides |
| of this conflict 23 elephants lost their lives. In | | | | a more accurate picture of losses from wildlife |
| 2001, economic loss of the order of US fifty | | | | damage to agricultural. Other damage estimates |
| thousand dollars was estimated to be inflicted by | | | | based on yield loss overstate the damage since |
| elephants. This scenario necessitates | | | | benefits from wildlife are netted out. Results for |
| comprehensive measures to be taken to lessen | | | | the Ontario field crop producers indicate that the |
| these damage. The review of the measures, | | | | magnitude of the difference between the value of |
| around the world suggest following few studies to | | | | the yield loss and the welfare measure of |
| be undertaken and resultant measures to be | | | | damage is approximately 50%. This difference |
| applied to lessen these damages.ii)Â Â Â Â | | | | indicates that most farmers were willing to |
| Mitigation of losses: | | | | tolerate the wildlife damage they experienced |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Methods | | | | (Heigh et al 2001). |
| developed and used to mitigate crop damages by | | | | Â |
| elephants consisted of frightening of animals by | | | | 15. Grapevine damages |
| drum beating, firegracks or even air gun fires. | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â In field |
| Guarding the crops by fences or even using | | | | trials in 1999-2000 in Gundla Pochampally, Andhra |
| electric fencing or raising poles and wiring may be | | | | Pradesh, India , the incidence of damage to green |
| effective. Chemical based deterrents, and electric | | | | grapevines was studied. Visits to the vines by |
| fencing have been found to reduce crop damages. | | | | bats begain around 45 minutes after sunset and |
| High voltage electric fencing using energizers in | | | | foraging continued until 1 hour before sunrise. |
| west have prevented wild animals damaging crop | | | | Damage occurred to ripe fruit only, and increased |
| but this preposition may not be applicable in areas | | | | around harvesting time, percentage damage |
| where even habitations do not have access to | | | | ranged from 0 to 100% (Bhargavi et al, 2001). |
| electricity. However, this method may act as a | | | | Â |
| temporary boundary separating wild and domestic | | | | 16. Â Â Hippo damage |
| habitats. This could prevent intrusions from sly | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â The |
| vatic to domestic foci. Guarding fields, digging | | | | introduction to the paper described the various |
| trenches, modifying cropping patterns have a | | | | ecological effects known to result from grazing, |
| possibility of reducing man elephant conflicts or | | | | movement along paths, and wallowing by the |
| Human elephant conflicts. A 30% open space | | | | common hippo. Hippopotamus amphibious. The |
| between two habitats may help to avoid HEC. | | | | study reported was carried out at Kainji Lake |
| This means a distance to be maintained between | | | | National Park., Nigeria, during  the dry season |
| cropping fields and elephant habitates. A proper | | | | periods {of 1991 and 1992} . The method |
| investigation on these lines is needed. A grid based | | | | adopted by Agnew, A.D.Q. (East African Wildlife |
| geographical information system (GIS) with a | | | | Journal (1966) 4, 38-46) was used to assess |
| 25Km2 resolution may help to have cost | | | | hippo foraging footprints at three hippo pool sites. |
| effective data source to analyze these situations. | | | | A total of 32 footpaths were enumerated out of |
| There is urgent need of identifying spatial | | | | which 18 were located at Kaii hippo pool site, while |
| predictors of HEC. On the basis of this study one | | | | the frequency of utilization of paths was also |
| can suggest or plan mitigation strategies, early | | | | higher for this site relative to those in other area. |
| warnings of attacks, use of barriers and | | | | The upstream-downstream trend in hippo |
| deterrents. The utility of the methods could be | | | | occupancy of dry  season water pools could |
| assessed for land use and livelihood strategies to | | | | expose the hippo to crop damage conflicts at the |
| limit HEC. | | | | peripheral areas. |
| Â | | | | Â |
| 3.      Dear-Nilgai Damages. | | | | 17. Hygo-Japan-mammal crop damages |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â A survey | | | | Â |
| of 2500 farms in UK revealed that 69% (n=192) | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Mammals |
| cereal crops were damaged by deer. This | | | | inhabiting  Hyogo consist of seven orders, 17 |
| damage costed £500 per annum per farm. | | | | families and about 40 species. Except for |
| Damages varied with deer density. In USA too | | | | Lagomorpha and Artiodactyla, the remaining |
| deer damages comprised of crop loss, landscape | | | | five orders among them include species which |
| damages, car accidents and property damages. | | | | need some protection and they total about 55% |
| Nilgai damages alongwith deer damages are | | | | of all species excluding extinct, introduced and |
| common in India too. Tree cover of Acacia in the | | | | feral species. Ecological information in Hyogo |
| area is generally used as shelter by Nilgai. We | | | | prefecture has been accumulated in few |
| have encountered huge crop damage in Mathura | | | | protection-required species there is no recent |
| (CIRG) and nearby area by Nilgai visits. Grazing | | | | information of spatial distribution on Oriental |
| and browsing of Nilgai inflict losses on farms. This | | | | water-shrew, Japanese noctule-bat and Japanese |
| is regarded as a mammalian crop threat by the | | | | dormouse; and little information on Japanese |
| farmers. This behaviour of their inflict ozone injury | | | | shrew, Japanese horse-shoe bat, Japanese large |
| to the young sapling, so precious for the growth | | | | -footed bat. Schreiber's bent-winged bat, Japanese |
| of trees in Indian semi-arid farms. | | | | tube-nosed bat, common parti-colored bat, |
| Â | | | | Japanese squirrel, Japanese small flying-squirrel, |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Corn | | | | Japanese giant flying-squirrel, smith's vole harvest |
| damages by deer in USA amounts to 6.6.% per | | | | mouse and Japanese badger. Damage and |
| hectare. In an area where a farmer owned 125 | | | | population managements is also necessary in sika |
| hectare on an average 55 hectares were used to | | | | deer and Japanese wild boar, to reduce their |
| sow corn. There is a 6.6% loss of the product | | | | crop--damaging, and comprehensive management |
| which is a huge economic loss. Similar damages by | | | | in Japanese black bear, an endangered local |
| deer in Ontario, Canada, Portugal, Japan, South | | | | population, to prevent human-bear fatal accident. |
| America and other parts of the world have been | | | | Habitat alteration due to human activities, |
| reviewed. In Virginia too a study involving 1506 | | | | however, has affected the population sizes and |
| agricultural producer farmers revealed 58% of | | | | spatial distribution of all these, mammals in Hyogo. |
| them experiencing deer damages. Ways and | | | | Habitat management has priority over damage. |
| means to prevent such attacks on crops have | | | | Fundamental and applied scientific studies and |
| been reviewed. Most of the possible measures to | | | | understanding of ecology and wildlife management |
| be adopted are similar to these described for | | | | science needs promotion by citizens (Mitani M |
| elephants (HEC). | | | | 2000). |
| Â | | | | Â |
| 4.   Other Mammal and bird damages | | | | 18. Monkey damage |
| Â | | | | Â |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Monkey | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â |
| damages maize, sweet potato and other crops. It | | | | Forty-seven property owners in Entebbe, Uganda |
| is suggested to reduce or change cropping | | | | were questioned about vervet monkey activities |
| pattern or alternating with non-agricultural activities | | | | on their property. The objective was to |
| near location of monkey habitats. Various | | | | investigate the interactions between humans and |
| methods are reviewed. Bat damage, Hygo crop | | | | vervet monkeys in an agricultural area adjacent |
| damages in Japan, Grape wine damages by bats | | | | to a forest zone. Other studies have reported |
| in Andra Pradesh, India have been studied. Crop | | | | that farms located within 300 m of a forested |
| economic loss assessment has been reviewed in | | | | boundary probably incur the greatest risk of |
| these pages. Clover rather than grass can reduce | | | | crop-raiding. Two other factors that may influence |
| wild mammal damages. Alley cropping of black | | | | susceptibility to vervet crop-raiding were also |
| walnuts helped to save soyabean and maize crop | | | | examined: the types of crops grown and the |
| damages. Pesticide damages wildlife and minimize | | | | types of direct preventive measures used. The |
| their attacks, enclosures and other electric fencing | | | | effect of these two factors on vervet |
| help to avoid such damage. Can one use harmful | | | | crop-raiding is not straight forward. However, the |
| means to save crops, need a suitable strategy to | | | | distance a property is located from the forest |
| preserve ecology and biodiversity. Both crops and | | | | edge is an important factor influencing vervet |
| wild animals need security and conservation. A | | | | crop raiding. Surveyed  gardens 200 m from |
| management strategy is needed to safeguard | | | | the forest edge received significantly less crop |
| human and wildlife equally.  A policy | | | | -raiding than farms located 100 or 50m |
| framework is envisaged. | | | | (P=0.040,< alpha=0.05). In this study, 8 out of 13 |
| Â | | | | farmers (61.5%) said that maize, sweet potato, |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Blackbird | | | | or both, were most likely to be damaged by the |
| crop damage in USA amounts to 5-8 million dollars. | | | | vervets. Other crops singled out by the farmers |
| A considerable sum of crores of rupees have | | | | are receiving damage by the vervets were |
| been estimated to be damages in the form of | | | | bananas, mangoes, groundnuts and yam. They |
| crop, human and property losses by wild animals, | | | | suggest that the development of |
| birds and other rodents in India. Many measures | | | | non-agricultural activities on land directly |
| to reduce these losses are needed and have | | | | adjacent to forested areas may reduce vervet |
| been reviewed. | | | | crop -raiding by deterring vervets from traveling |
| Â | | | | greater distances from the forest edge due to |
|  | | | | increased obstacles or risks  (Saj et al 2001). |
| Â | | | | Â |
| Â | | | | 19. Bait damage |
| Â | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â The |
| Review | | | | longevity of zinc phosphide (ZP) on whole wheat |
| 1. Wild animals damaging crops | | | | bait  was determined at the end of the "dry" |
| To elephants wild boar, porcupine, rheus macaque | | | | and "wet" seasons, Â is Western Australia.. |
| (Macaca mulatta), hoary-bellied squirrel, barking | | | | While the total rainfall during the two trials was 74 |
| deer (Muntiacus muntjak), red-breasted parakeet | | | | mm and 155mm, substantial loss of ZP was |
| (Psittacula alexandri), and wild dog are wild animals | | | | recorded only after significant rainfall events. |
| damaging crops. | | | | Irrespective of season, the loss of ZP from bait |
| Methods developed and being used to mitigate | | | | applied in bait stations was minimal. The maximum |
| man-wildlife conflict include, frightening the animals; | | | | recorded loss was 17% and this occurred |
| guarding the crops; and using some sort of | | | | after 21 days' exposure during the wet |
| scarecrow and traps (Miah et al 2001). | | | | season where the bait stations were placed |
| Accurate estimation of crop damage by wildlife | | | | in-crop. Nevertheless, regardless of the application |
| (raccoons, white-tailed deer, and coyotes) often | | | | method, sufficient ZP always remained on the |
| requires labour-intensive sampling procedure. | | | | wheat bait. Theoretically  it was lethal to rats |
| Variable area transect (VAT) sampling has been | | | | for at least 8-14 days (Twigg et al., Â 2001). |
| identified as a potential labour-saving alternative to | | | | 20.Venezuela experience: |
| quadrat sampling ( Engerman et al 2002). | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â In |
| Â | | | | Venezuela, lethal control of wintering Dickcissels |
| 2. Wild life Human conflicts | | | | (Spiza Americana) is considered a threat to the |
| Agricultural landowners suffer in the form of | | | | species survival. To help farmers protect their rice |
| damage to crops, livestock, and other property. | | | | and sorghum crops from by Dickcissels and to |
| Some wildlife agencies maintained abatement and | | | | minimize the killing of large numbers of these |
| compensation programmes. A model of | | | | birds, alternative non-lethal crop protection |
| deer-inflicted crop damage used to facilitate | | | | measures are needed. To that end, the responses |
| agency decisions regarding deer densities and | | | | of captive Dickcissels to three bird-repellent |
| distribution, abatement use, and to forecast | | | | chemicals (anthraquinone,methyl anthranilate and |
| compensation. The model is applied to field-level | | | | methiocarb) applied to rice seed were evaluated. |
| compensation claims in Wisconsin, USA. The | | | | In one-cup feeding trials, treatments of |
| results are consistent with theory, ( Yoder J, | | | | methiocarb (0.05% g/g, applied as Mesurol |
| 2002). | | | | 75%Â wettable powder) and anthraquinone |
| Â | | | | (0.5%, applied as Flight Control) reduced |
| 3. Crop Economic loss due to wild life | | | | consumption of rice by 70% relative to |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â People's | | | | pretreatment consumption. Other anthraquinone |
| perceptions were discerned through participatory | | | | treatments (0.05,0.1%) and methyl authranilate |
| discussions covering 419 households distributed in | | | | (0.05%) were inrffective. In two -cup trials, with |
| 10 villages in the buffer zone. Traditional uncodified | | | | untreated millet as the alternative food, |
| rights of local people were substantially reduced | | | | consumption of rice treated with 0.05 and |
| through policy interventions set in since 1860s. | | | | 0.1%Â anthraquinone was reduced by 90% |
| Local people as well as tourists have been | | | | relative to pretreatment levels. Overall, Dickcissels |
| excluded from the core zone covering an area of | | | | responded to the repellents similarly to the |
| 625 km2 since 1982. Deterioration of rural | | | | red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus). |
| economy due to damage to crop and livestock | | | | Because Flight Control has been used successfully |
| by wildlife and, termination of opportunities of | | | | to reduce blackbird use of rice fields in the USA, |
| income from wild medicinal plant resources and | | | | the prospect is good for successful reduction of |
| tourism in the core zone were the key negative | | | | damage to repening rice by Dickcissels in |
| impacts of conservation policy felt by more than | | | | Venezuela, particularly if repellent use is coupled |
| 90% of respondents. Mean annual economic loss | | | | with the establishment of alternative feeding sites |
| per household was estimated as Rs.1285, Rs. 1195 | | | | ( Avery et al 2001). Deer selected carrots over all |
| and Rs.156 due to damage caused by wildlife to | | | | green manure crops. |
| food crops, fruit trees and beehives, respectively, | | | | Â |
| Rs. 1587Â due to ban on collection of wild | | | | 21. Nilgai damages in India |
| medicinal plants for marketing and Rs.7904 due to | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â |
| ban on tourism in the core zone. The Reserve | | | | Crop-damage by nilgai has been widely reported |
| authority granted compensation for livestock killed | | | | from India. Â Are give Nilgai is for increasing in |
| by wildlife but it was hardly 5% of the market | | | | this region. Lack of natural predators, |
| value of killed livestock as assessed by the | | | | deforestation overgrazing and the protection of |
| people. People did not appreciate much the | | | | these animals from Hindu communities are |
| present benefits from the reserve management | | | | reasons for their overpopulation. Tree cover of |
| in the form of wages for carrying out | | | | Acacia are generally used by nilgai as a day time |
| afforestation work, partial compensation for | | | | shelter but not food, Â therefore it goes for |
| livestock depredation and availability of solar | | | | crop-raiding in the late evening and at night, |
| power devices, wool, and spinning devices. | | | | jumping across 6-7 feet high stone wall, barbed |
| Approximately 95% respondents identified | | | | fencing and fences of dead or live thorny plant |
| empowerment of local people in respect of | | | | material and any other fencing/barrier made to |
| realizing income from timber from dead/diseased | | | | protect the crop-. Due to habit of both grazing as |
| trees in community forests, income from | | | | well as browsing they devore every kind of farm |
| medicinal plants in buffer zone and opening of the | | | | species (both rabi and kharif crops). It has been |
| core zone for tourism as potential development | | | | observed that eating less but destroying more by |
| options. Improvement in rural economy, the prime | | | | trampling and causing damage are therefore |
| concern of local people, has not received as much | | | | regarded as serious mammalian crop pest and |
| attention as legal enforcement of protection by | | | | farmers wants to get ride of this unconventional |
| the reserve management. There is a need for | | | | pest. The farmers chase them away by just |
| developing policies and management actions that | | | | following them by making loud sound by crackers |
| serve the economic interests of local people | | | | or air gun fires, following through tractors, empty |
| together with enhancement of environment | | | | tin or dried pumpkin filled with small stones and |
| conservation goal (Maikhuri et al 2001). | | | | connected with strings. Technically, |
| Â | | | | carrots(enclosures), trenching or power fencing |
| 4. Crop selection: | | | | are suggested to mitigate the crop damage. |
| Damage was less (34%) in experimental carrot as | | | | Secondly, animals could be translocated to wildlife |
| multiple crop than carrots as only crop planted | | | | sanctuaries from the sites they seen |
| (62% damage). Staggered plantings of canola, | | | | overcrowded or severe crop raiding problems |
| which continuously produced flowers, was the | | | | (Goyal et al 2000). |
| most effective lure crop of the green manure | | | | Â |
| crops we tested. Carrot producers should use | | | | 22. Pesticides and wildlife |
| electric fences or 2.4-m woven wire fences, | | | | A range of monitoring activities has shown |
| perhaps combined with staggered canola plantings, | | | | impacts of anticholinesterase pesticides on UK |
| to reduce carrot depredations ( Schwab et al | | | | wildlife, and continued risks are evident from |
| 2001). | | | | laboratory and field experiments, together with |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â The | | | | the scale of use in the field. Along with other |
| colver, rather than fertilized grass, is more | | | | broad spectrum insecticides, many |
| effective cover crop on AFAs, against damage | | | | organophosphates have adverse direct effects on |
| by migratory geese. The sward should be | | | | non-target arthropods in farmland, and so are |
| managed to encourage clover growth, which | | | | likely to contribute towards indirect effects of |
| would probably involve frequent cutting but no | | | | pesticides on farmland biodiversity. The |
| fertilizer. Further research is needed on clover | | | | anticholinesterase insecticides have both lethal and |
| replenishment rate over the winter season and | | | | sublethal effects on aquatic wildlife, however the |
| possible benefits of clover leys to other wild life | | | | history of recent incidents of damage to river |
| (McKay et al 2001). Alley cropping of black | | | | ecology following the wider use of synthetic |
| walnuts and percent with maize and soyabean | | | | pyrethroid sheep dips, illustrates the need to |
| rotations may avoid will animal damages. Tree | | | | consider the implications of changes in the use of |
| -crop ratio of 1:10 may help( Godsey, 2000). | | | | alternative products when reviewing these |
| Â | | | | insecticides ( Burn 2000). |
| 5. Elephan- human conflicts: | | | |  |
| Conflicts between elephants (Elephas maximus) | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â The use |
| and human occur in Rajaji National Park (RNP), | | | | of anthraguinone-based flight control and methyl |
| Uttar Pradesh, one of eleven reserves designated | | | | anthranilate-based non toxic avian foraging |
| in India, to conserve Asian elephants. | | | | repellent we used to avoid crop damage by |
| Elephant-human. The conflicts in RNP from 1996 | | | | sandhill cranes. Thought both repellents were |
| to 1999 were studied, and all human and elephant | | | | effective at deterring cranes from treated corn, |
| deaths or injuries caused by conflict were | | | | neither has been tested on corn under field |
| recorded. The impact of human colonies on | | | | conditions. (Blackwell et al 2001). |
| elephant movement was studied in 18 villages | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Oak |
| along 17 km of the sourthern boundary of the | | | | seedlings were scientifically raised. Seedling |
| study site and 4 village in the Chilla-Motichur | | | | mortality and wild life browse damages were |
| corridor. Three male and four female elephants | | | | minimal when certain herbicide mixture was used. |
| were radio tracked for 1-2 years. Primary | | | | Biologically and aesthetically, the procedure was |
| conflicts included crop raiding, competition between | | | | extremely successful (Ezell et al 1999). |
| humans and elephants for vegetation, and | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â |
| elephant mortality due to train accidents. Adult | | | | Pre-commercially thinned (forests are less prone |
| males that raided crops had home ranges twice | | | | to moose damage (McLaren et al, 2000). |
| as large as adult males that did not raid crops. | | | | Â |
| Elephants only damaged crop of fields that | | | | 23. Pesticide use in conflicts |
| occurred within their home ranges. Field trails of | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Pesticides |
| chemical based deterrents and electric fencing | | | | can cause damage to man and beneficial organism. |
| should be tried to reduce crop damage. Train | | | | Some sub-lethal effects of pesticides were |
| speeds need to be reduced to prevent accidental | | | | studied in birds with a view to identifying |
| elephant mortality (Williams et al 2001). | | | | characteristic biochemical responses that may be |
| Â | | | | useful for the monitoring of exposure to sub-lethal |
| Wild Elephant damages: | | | | levels in the field. Pesticides were used; |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â A rapid | | | | demeton-S-methyl, (DSM),chlorpyriphos, |
| village and field assessments, data survey | | | | chlorfenviphos, triazophos, pirimicarb, methiocarb |
| showed. Elephants raided crops at a rate of 0.53 | | | | and permethrin. Blood was collected before dosing, |
| elephants per day in Indonesia. The frequency of | | | | and 2,6,24,48 and 72 hours after the treatment |
| crop raiding was related to vegetation type along | | | | from the brachial vein of birds. Enzyme, activities |
| the park border, the size and presence of rivers, | | | | were assayed in the plasma or serum samples |
| and the distance to the park's Elephant Training | | | | obtained. The assays used were GOT,MHD, GDH, |
| Centre (ETC), which houses about 150 captive | | | | SDH,GAMMA GT and ChE. The results showed an |
| elephants. Wild elephants damaged at least | | | | increase in plasma and serum GOT and |
| 450000Â m2 of maize, rice, cassava, beans and | | | | gamma-GT levels were found in all animals |
| other annual crops, and close to 900 coconut, | | | | treated with the previous pesticides. The level of |
| banana and other perennial trees in the area | | | | ChE increased in birds after treatment with |
| surveyed. Elephants killed or injured 24 .Villagers | | | | permethrin. It was concluded that the pesticides |
| try to reduce elephant damage by guarding fields, | | | | cause structural and functional changes in the liver |
| digging trenches between the park and their fields, | | | | and also, the measurement of the previous |
| and modifying their cropping patterns. | | | | parameter activities may be useful for assessing |
| Elephants-human conflict decreases the probability | | | | exposure and sub-lethal effects of pesticides on |
| of support from local people for conservation | | | | the wildlife (Dahamna et al 2004). |
| efforts. The approaches are suggested consist of | | | | Â |
| elephant trenches, electric fences, external | | | | Â |
| support to affected villages, and compensation to | | | | 24. IPM and crop losses |
| villagers for any damage caused (Nyhus et al | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â The |
| 2000). | | | | queensland sugar, industry has recently |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â This study | | | | implemented a comprehensive integrated pest |
| explores land use conflict in south east Kajiado | | | | management (IPM) system to minimize crop |
| District, Kenya. The results of household surveys | | | | losses from two antive rodent species, Rattus |
| conducted with farmers and herders in 1977 and | | | | sordidus (canefield rat) and Melomy burtoni |
| 1996 to examine changes in land management | | | | (climbing rat). These species inflicted |
| strategies are compared. The conflict reflects | | | | approximately $25M of damage in a major |
| ongoing competition over access to scarce land | | | | outbreak in the 1999-2000 seasons. Both of |
| and water resources between herding, farming | | | | these rodents are listed as common wildlife under |
| and wildlife are the reason of damage of crops. | | | | the schedules of the queensland nature |
| This man-animal conflict needs understanding the | | | | Conservation (Wildlife) Regulation 1994. The IPM |
| conditions that have created the present conflicts | | | | programme is based on understanding the ecology |
| (Compbell et al 2000). | | | | and biology of each species. It incorporates a |
| It is, therefore, suggested that 30% open space | | | | large-scale monitoring programme aimed at |
| be used as a basic division for stratifying thickets | | | | providing early warning of imminent rodent build |
| into low -use and high-use categories for deer | | | | up to avert major outbreaks. The industry has |
| density estimation. The proportions of each type | | | | also developed a memorandum of |
| could be derived from grid-square measurements | | | | understanding with Queensland State |
| of aerial photographs (Latham J 2000). | | | | Government, which delivers on the industry's pest |
| Â | | | | management needs, while providing an improved |
| Â | | | | system of accountability for the taking of two of |
| Human elephant conflict | | | | Queenslands native wildlife species. The consensus |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â | | | | reached between the cooperating parties (The |
| Human-elephant conflict (HEC) in Africa occurs | | | | Bureau of sugar Experiment Stations, |
| wherever these two species coincide, and poses | | | | CANEGROWERS, regionally-based Cane |
| serious challenges to wild life managers, local | | | | Productivity Services, and the outcomes can be |
| communities and elephants alike. Mitigation requires | | | | negotiated between rural industry and |
| a details understanding of underlying patterns and | | | | environmental interests (Hunt et al 2004)Â . |
| processes. Although temporal patterns of HEC are | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â In Areas |
| relatively predictable, spatial variation has shown | | | | around Lake Mburo National Park ,large wild |
| few universal trends, making it difficult to predict | | | | animals wander in close proximity to human |
| where conflict will take place. Crop raiding was | | | | settlement . This poses serious conflict in terms |
| further subdivided into incidents involving only male | | | | of crop damage. The integration of conservation |
| elephants or family groups. A relatively | | | | with other land uses is difficult where densely |
| fine-resolution, systematic, grid -based method | | | | settled agricultural land surrounds a protected area |
| was used to assign the locations of conflict | | | | potentially containing problem animals, as is the |
| incidents, and spatial relations with underlying | | | | case for several parks in Africa and Asia. The |
| variables were explored using correlation analysis | | | | intensity of crop raiding was quantified through |
| and logistic regression. Crop raiding was clustered | | | | the use of random crop quadrants/plots and area |
| into distinct conflict zones. Both occurrence and | | | | estimation techniques in a portion of raided fields. |
| intensity could be predicted on the basis of the | | | | The animal species concerned were documented |
| area under cultivation and, for male elephant | | | | from observations, footprints and any other |
| groups, proximity to major settlement. | | | | marks left behind. Three variables were tested as |
| Conversely, incidents human injury and death | | | | predictors of damage; human population density, |
| were less predictable but were correlated with | | | | distance from the park boundary and season. In |
| proximity to roads. A grid-based geographical | | | | this study data is presented regarding crop loss in |
| information system (GIS) with a 25km2 resolution | | | | the different seasons of the year, analysis of |
| utilizing cost-effective data source, combined with | | | | crop damage variation and animal species involved |
| simple statistical tools, was capable of | | | | in crop loss. A diverse assemblage of animals |
| identifying spatial predictors of HEC, At finer | | | | foraged on subsistence crops and analysis of crop |
| resolutions spatial autocorrelation compromised | | | | damage revealed significant crop depreciation by |
| the analyses. Synthesis and application. These | | | | wildlife( Kagoro et al 2004). |
| results suggest that spatial correlates of HEC can | | | | Â |
| be identified, regardless of the sex of the | | | | Â |
| elephants involved. Moreover, the method | | | | Â |
| described here is fully transferable to other sites | | | | 25. Hawai Pest |
| for comparative analysis of HEC. Using these | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â The apple |
| results to map vulnerability will enable the | | | | snail, P.canaliculata, is an aquatic freshwater snail |
| development and deployment of appropriate | | | | native to South America, Originally imported to |
| conflict mitigation strategies, such as guarding, | | | | Hawai'i as pets for the aquarium trade, they were |
| early warning systems, barriers and deterrents. | | | | soon introduced into wetland plots known as "lo's" |
| The utility of such methods and their strategic | | | | where taro (Colocasia esculenta), an economically |
| deployment should be assessed alongside | | | | and culturally significant crop, is grown. Some |
| alternative land-use and livelihood strategies that | | | | individuals reasoned that the snails, being edible, |
| limit cultivation within the elephant range (Sitati et | | | | could be harvested as food, and that raising the |
| al 2003). | | | | snails along with the taro in the "Io's" would |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Human | | | | provide income supplemental to the taro harvest |
| elephant conflicts (HEC) in west Bengal was an | | | | with minimum additional input. This introduction of |
| economic loss worth 3.2 crores. This much | | | | snails into the taro "lo'i" however, proved to be a |
| damage occurred in 3368 sq km radius inhibiting | | | | disaster. Farmers failed to take into account the |
| 62 elephants (Singh et al 2002) | | | | voracity , reproductive potential, and rapid growth |
| Â | | | | of the snails. Because of the ideal conditions in the |
| 6.   Kerala Survey | | | | taro "lo'i", the snails multiplied rapidly and fed |
| Crop damage by wild animals in Kerala, India, was | | | | heavily on the taro shoots and corns in many |
| studied from 1993 to 1996. Data were collected | | | | cases, destroying a complete crop before harvest |
| from the offices of the Kerala Forest | | | | time. Hindisight has shown that the snails are |
| Department, field survey and from the intensive | | | | dissipated via the irrigation system throughout the |
| study area at Marayur, Idukki District. Forty-five | | | | "lo'i" and then spread to the surrounding wetland |
| species of crops were destroyed by wild animals | | | | areas. Large breeding populations are now |
| in Kerala, the species commonly destroyed by | | | | established in wetland areas on the islands of |
| wild animals were paddy, coconut plam , plantains | | | | Hawai'e, O'ahu, Kaua'I, and Maui. Some of |
| , cassava , arecanut, coffee, oil plam , pepper , | | | | these wetlands are wildlife preserves with state |
| jack tree, mulberry and manago. The main | | | | and federal mandates that restrict the potential |
| animals involved in crop damage were elephant | | | | methods of eradication. Background information is |
| (Elephas maximus), gaur (Bos gaurus),sambar | | | | provided on both P.canaliculata and taro to fully |
| (Cervus unicolor), wild boar (Sus scrofa), bonnet | | | | explain the challenges and opportunities that this |
| macaque (Macaca radiate), common langur | | | | situation presents (Tamaru et al 2006). |
| (Presbytis entellus), blacknaped hare (Lepus | | | | Â |
| nigricollis) and pea fowl (Pavo cristatus). Among | | | | 26. Chemical repellents |
| these, elephants and wild board gave | | | |          Chemical |
| maximum damage . Of the total compensation | | | | feeding repellents applied to ripening sunflower |
| claimed by the farmers, only 8.2% was | | | | might help reduce blackbird (lcteridae) damage, |
| sanctioned by the Kerala Forest Department. The | | | | which is a chronic agricultural problems from seed |
| highest crop damage (30%) was recorded from | | | | information harvest. However, cost are high to |
| the forest ranges coming under the Northern | | | | develop and register new repellents for agricultural |
| Circle: pinapple (47%) , sweet potato (47%), | | | | use. In 2003 and 2004, we evaluated feeding |
| tapioca (42%), alocasia (39%) , beans (25%) and | | | | repellency of 8 pesticides registered by the |
| plantains (23%) recorded highest percentage of | | | | Environmental Protection Agency for use in |
| damage. In the intensive study area at Marayur, | | | | sunflower. Caged red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius |
| 28 species of crops were damaged and highest | | | | phoeniceus) were fed unshelled sunflower seeds |
| damage was during the summer months. At | | | | treated with the following pesticides: 5 pyrethroid |
| maximum damage was due to elephant (72%) | | | | insecticides, an organochlorine, an |
| followed by gaur (62%) , sambar (17%) and wild | | | | organophosphorus, and a gungicide. Compared to |
| boar (16%) . Tiger (Panthera tigris), panther | | | | untreated refernce groups, feeding rates were |
| (leopard) (Panthera pardus) and wild dog (Conine | | | | reduced for 4 of the 5 pyrethroid insecticides. |
| alpinus) were the main cattle lifters in the state. A | | | | Only the organophosphorus (chlorpyrifos), |
| total of 31 deaths and 64 injuries caused by wild | | | | however, significantly decreased feeding rates. |
| animals were recorded from the state during the | | | | More research on repellency effects of this |
| period 1983 to 1993. Thirteen indigenous methods | | | | product in field efficacy trials is probably |
| used for controlling the crop damage had been | | | | warranted based on the results of our cage |
| identified. High voltage electric fencing using | | | | experiments. Depending on timing of application, |
| energizer was effective for stopping elephants | | | | registered insecticides with blackbird feeding |
| and other herbivores from entering the agriculture | | | | repellency could provide supplemental economic |
| fields. Crop damage is found to be linked to the | | | | benefits to sunflower producers through dual |
| cropping pattern and location of the agriculture | | | | purpose use ((Linz et al 2006). |
| fields. Short term and long-term measures needed | | | | Â |
| to prevent the crop damage are discussed | | | | 27. Persistent organic pollutants (POPS) |
| (Jayson EA,1999). | | | |          Persistent |
| Â | | | | organic pollutants (POPs) have spread throughout |
| 7. Â Bird crop damages | | | | the global environment to threaten human health |
| Â | | | | and damage ecosystems, with evidence of POPs |
| Use of non-lethal method to avoid crop damages | | | | contamination in wildlife, human blood, and breast |
| by bird have been reported. Blueberry damages | | | | milk documented worldwide. Based on data from |
| by cedar waxwings (Bombycilla cedrotun were | | | | the US Food and Drug Administration, this article |
| minimized. (Avery et al 2002). | | | | provides a brief overview of POPs residues in |
| Â | | | | common foods in the USA food supply. The |
| 8. Wild Bird damage | | | | analysis focuses on 12 chemical compounds now |
| Â | | | | targeted for an international phase out under the |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â In the | | | | Stockholm convention on POPs. The available |
| northern Great Plains of USA, conflicts | | | | information indicates that POPs residues are |
| between red-winged black birds (Agelaius | | | | present in virtually all categories of foods, including |
| phoeniceus) and sunflower (Helianthus annus)Â | | | | baked goods, fruit, vegetables, meat, poultry, and |
| growers have intensified since the late 1960s | | | | dairy products. Residues of five or more |
| due to the expanded commercial | | | | persistent toxic chemicals in a single food item are |
| production of sunflowers. We studied the potential | | | | not unusual, with the most commonly found POPs |
| population effects of the removal of up to 2 | | | | being the pesticides DDT ( and its metabolites, |
| million red-winged blackbirds annually under a 5 | | | | such as DDE) and dieldrin. Estimated daily doses of |
| year programme of baiting during spring with | | | | dieldrin alone exceed the US Environmental |
| DRC-1339 (3-choloro-4 methalalanine) treated rice. | | | | Protection Agency and US Agency for Toxic |
| They also examined whether lethal control, in | | | | Substances Disease Control reference dose for |
| combination with current levels of breeding habitat | | | | children. Given the widespread occurrence of |
| management, would be cost effective in | | | | POPs in the food supply and the serious health |
| decreasing depredation of sunflower crops | | | | risks associated with even extremely small levels |
| during late summer. They evaluated the cost | | | | of exposure, prevention of further food |
| benefit ration for 4 culling scenarios involving (1) | | | | contamination must be a national health policy |
| variable annual cullus, not exceeding 2 million birds, | | | | priority in every country. Implementation of the |
| with and without density compensation (i.e. ,a | | | | Stockholm Convention will prevent further |
| positive density-dependent response) on adult | | | | accumulation of persistent toxic chemicals in food. |
| survival and (2) culls of 2 million birds annually with | | | | Early ratification and rapid implementation of this |
| and without density compensation .We | | | | treaty should be an urgent priority for all |
| constructed a red -winged blackbird population | | | | governments (Schafer et al 2002). |
| model represented as an age-based matrix | | | |  |
| and calibrated to stable growth. We assumed a | | | | 28. Netherland experiences |
| total population of 27 million birds on 1 April (week | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â |
| 1), representing the red-winged blackbird breeding | | | | Traditionally, pink-footed geese Anser |
| population staging in eastern Southern Dakota and | | | | Brachyrhynchus wintering in Denmark, the |
| migrating into North Dakota.Under each culling | | | | Netherlands and Belgium have used the Danish |
| scenario, we reduced the stable red-winged | | | | sites only during mild winter, rapidly moving |
| blackbird population (Equally for females and | | | | southwards in case of cold spells. Since the 1980s, |
| males) and project the population through week | | | | an increasing number of geese have remained on |
| 23 of the annual cycle (2 Sep). We then evaluated | | | | the Danish wintering grounds despite cold spells, |
| the associated costs of the management relative | | | | foraging on pastures Because winter wheat |
| to potential sunflower crop losses, assuming $0.07 | | | | represented a reliable and profitable food source |
| in damage per bird and 4% loss to other | | | | even in sever winter, the recent change in |
| factors. Variable annual culls, likely the more | | | | Agricultural practice has enhanced the |
| biologically realistic model scenarios, yielded mean | | | | development of a new wintering strategy of |
| annual removals of 1 240 560 (SE=12 328) birds | | | | pink-footed geese, allowing a northward expansion |
| with density compensation and 1 231 620 (SE=28 | | | | of their winter range. Potentially, this will increase |
| 811) birds without density compensation,, with | | | | the crop damage conflict and may lead to further |
| cost benefit ratios of 1:2.3 and 1:3.6, respectively. | | | | population growth ( Therkidsen et al 2000). |
| Annual intrinsic rates for the model population | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Enclosure |
| over the 5 year period ranged from 1-4 to | | | | trials near Huron, CA in the San Joaquin Valley |
| 4.8%. Considering potential variability in the | | | | from 12 to 23 January 1999 , determine the |
| effectiveness of the cull and the combination | | | | efficacy of Flight Control TM (50% anthraquinone) |
| of direct and indirect costs,we contend that | | | | and Mesurol R (75% methiocarb) in preventing |
| the realized benefits to sunflower growers by | | | | horned lark damage to lettuce seedlings. Flight |
| lethal control of red-winged blackbiards via spring | | | | control TM (FC) and Mesurol R were evaluated as |
| baiting , in combination with current nonlethal | | | | foliar sprays at application rates of 2.79 and 2.27 |
| management efforts, would likely be negligible | | | | kg ha-1, respectively. Horned lark damage to |
| (Blackwell et al 2003). | | | | lettuce seedlings treated with anthraquinone was |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â The | | | | greater (p=0.015) than for methiocarb R, 60 |
| efficacy of hydrolyzed casein (HC) and retail | | | | versus 20% , respectively, and seedlings in control |
| products that contain HC in reducing deer damage | | | | plots were 100% destroyed. While this level of |
| to trees and shrubs was determined in a field | | | | damage is probably unacceptable to lettuce |
| experiments conducted in USA during 2004-05. | | | | growers, it should be remembered that the |
| The results of the experiments indicate the | | | | enclosure situation caused an artificially high bird |
| suitability of HC as a deer repellent. Technical | | | | pressure on the crop. Further studies in open |
| grade HC completely eliminated browsing damage | | | | fields under a more normal bird pressure are |
| to evergreen shrubs (Gaultheria shallon) and | | | | warranted ( York et al 2000). |
| conifers (Thuja plicata). Retail sources of HC were | | | | Â |
| not as effective as the pure hydrolyzed protein | | | | 29. Ozone injury |
| (Kimball et al 2005). | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Incidence |
| Â | | | | and severity of visible foliar ozone injury on |
| Â | | | | cutleaf coneflower (Rudbeckia laciniata L.) and |
| 9. Blackbird damages | | | | crown-bread (Verbesina Occidentalis Walt). Were |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â The | | | | determined .It is thus a matter of consideration |
| economic impact of blackbirds can be severe to | | | | that zone injury may harm vegetation harmed by |
| rice producers in the United States. One approach | | | | browsing or even cutting. Ozone injury was |
| to managing this damage is the application of | | | | greatest on the lower leaves for both species |
| bird-deterrent chemical to the crop. Previous pilot | | | | sampled with over 95% of the injured leaves |
| trials suggested that caffeine offered potential as | | | | occurring on the lower 50% of the plant. This is |
| a safe, economical bird repellent. In this study, | | | | the first report of foliar ozone injury on these |
| cage feeding trials with female red -winged | | | | plant species in situ, in the Park, illustrating the |
| blackbirds and male brown headed cowbirds | | | | great variability in symptom expression with time, |
| confirmed that a treatment rate of 25000 ppm | | | | and within and between populations ( Chappelka et |
| caffeine on rice seed reduced consumption as | | | | al 2003). |
| much as 76% . Trials with mixed species | | | | Â |
| blackbirds flocks in a 0.2-ha flight pen resulted | | | | 30. Protected arrears and humans |
| in just 4% loss of caffine-treated rice compared | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Knowledge |
| to 43% loss of untreated rice. . Field trials of a 10 | | | | of conflicts between people and protected areas |
| 000 ppm caffeine treatment in Louisiana revealed | | | | is required for the design of sustainable |
| > 90% of caffeine-treated rice seed remained | | | | conservation strategies for the management of |
| unconsumed on days 2 and 3 of the study | | | | most protected areas. The study identifies the |
| whereas blackbirds consumed > 80% of the | | | | causes of conflicts between local people and the |
| untreated seed. As a rice seed treatment to | | | | Benous Wildlife Conservation Area (BWCA), which |
| deter blackbirds, caffeine appears to be effective, | | | | includes the Benous National Park, In northern |
| economical and environmentally safe, although | | | | Cameroon. Informal interviews and questionnaires |
| additional aquatic toxicity testing is desirable. | | | | were administered to 114 households in three |
| Improvements in formulation will be needed to | | | | communities, and to 17 park staff and 7 |
| make the compound practical for general | | | | professional hunting guides from July -October |
| agricultural spray applications and to extend the | | | | 1997. Crop damage affected 86% of the |
| adherence of caffeine to rice seeds in field | | | | surveyed household, with 31% of crop income |
| conditions ((Avery et al 2005). | | | | lost on average, and with the damage varying |
| Â | | | | significantly between communities. Elephants, |
| 10. Deer damage | | | | baboons, patas monkeys. Warthogs and green |
| A questionnaire was distributed to over 2500 | | | | parrots accounted for 97% of crop damage, with |
| farms to know damage caused by lowland | | | | the staple food maize and millet being most |
| deer to crops, trees and vegetation. Results from | | | | affected. Of the respondents 27% |
| the questionnaire showed that 69% (n=1192) of | | | | experienced livestock depredation, with 18% of |
| responding farmers had deer on their holdings and | | | | livestock income lost on average. The civet |
| that Roe and Fallow were the most frequently | | | | cat was the main predator. The involvement of |
| seen species. On those farms with deer present, | | | | local people in illegal activities, their lack of |
| cereals were the most commonly damaged crop | | | | access to natural resources, and damage by |
| (44%), but only 15% of these farmers claimed | | | | wildlife were identified as principal causes of |
| that the annual cost of damage to cereals | | | | conflicts. Local people, park staff and professional |
| exceeded £500 each year for the whole | | | | hunting guides had diverse and differing |
| farm. Validation assessments were based on two | | | | perceptions about the causes of the conflicts and |
| visits to assess deer damage to the crop, with a | | | | made various suggestions for reduction of wildlife |
| deer species/density assessment during the | | | | damage including animal scaring and controlled |
| March assessment and an assessment of grain | | | | shooting. We conclude that, under current wildlife |
| yield and quality during the August assessment. | | | | policy, conflict between people and BWCA Â |
| Respondents were generally accurate in the | | | | (Bonous Wildlife Conservation area) is difficult to |
| density and species of deer reported. The | | | | resolve. To reduce conflicts and promote |
| percentage of the farm suffering damage | | | | sustainable conservation, we suggest |
| attributable to deer was very variable, generally | | | | co-management of wildlife involving all |
| being higher at the first assessment than the | | | | stakeholders, establishment of crop damage |
| second. The figures calculated for yield loss were | | | | control teams, and promotion of tangible benefits |
| generally low, Farmers were poor at estimating | | | | to  local people. There may be a requirement |
| the economic impact of deer damage when | | | | for site -specificity in management strategies |
| compared to validation data, but a number of | | | | (Weladji et al 2003). |
| parameters may have changed in the two years | | | | Â |
| between the questionnaire distribution and | | | | 31. Low technology use to avoid damages |
| validation, including changes in deer density, crop | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â It is |
| rotations, and the marked drop in grain prices, | | | | suggested that an integrated, community-based, |
| which may account for some of the inaccuracies. | | | | low technological approach will be the most |
| There were no statistically significant relationships | | | | sustainable solution to this conflict ( Osborn et al |
| between deer damage assessments and yield | | | | 2003). |
| loss, either for individual species or both species | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Blackbirds |
| combined. The relationship between Roe deer | | | | (lcteridae) annually damage US$5-8 million of |
| damage at the harvest assessment and Roe deer | | | | ripening sunflower in the northern Great Plains. |
| density was significant (Post et al, 2001). | | | | Baiting blackbirds with avicide-treated rice during |
| Wildlife managers must consider the public's | | | | spring migration might reduce the regional |
| preferences for wildlife population levels when | | | | breeding populations. birds can be successfully |
| determining management policies. 849 farmers, | | | | baited with avicide-treated rice placed in corn |
| hunters and the general public of Maryland. USA, | | | | stubble (Linz et al 2003). |
| were surveyed in 1996 to determine their | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â |
| preferences for increasing, maintaining, or | | | | Plant debris accumulation is viewed as a key |
| decreasing deer population numbers. Using a | | | | factor determining small mammal abundance and |
| random utility theoretic framework, the factors | | | | potential damage in low-till agricultural ((Stermer et |
| that explain preferences such as residential | | | | al 2003) areas. |
| location, socioeconomic characteristics, landscape | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â The |
| damage, agricultural yield loss and vehicle accidents | | | | projected total value of crop yield losses due to |
| were analyzed. Results suggested that the | | | | wildlife damage for buffer zone villages located in |
| majority of people benefit from deer and want to | | | | Garhwal Himalaya in about Rs.5 38 620 (US$15 |
| keep deer population at current levels. Other | | | | 389). Besides food grain, horticultural crops i.e |
| characteristics such as age, income, education, | | | | apple, also suffered. |