Crop Damages by Wild Animals Global View Country Report and Reviews in 1-10 Sections

blueridgehunt.com keyword stats
provided by brainquick.com

Most current MSN search phrases:

diego				sandals
their				jack russell prints
hunting				fox hounds association

Crop Damages by Wild Animals Global View Country Report and Reviews in 1-10 Sections

Crop Damage by Wild Animalssection i general				determine their preferences for increasing,
discussions				maintaining, or decreasing deer population
				numbers. Using a random utility theoretic
G.M. Wani				framework, the factors that explain
				preferences such as residential location,
Ph.D ; D.V.M (Germany)				socioeconomic characteristics, landscape
				damage, agricultural yield loss and vehicle
FN ISSGAPU, FN DAAD				accidents were analyzed. Results suggested
				that the majority of people benefit from deer
Director Extension Education / SAMETI				and want to keep deer population at current
				levels. Other characteristics such as age,
Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural				income, education, and residential location
Sciences and Technology of Kashmir				have minor or no impact on preferences.
				Property damage, crop loss, landscape damage,
Shalimar, Srinagar, 191121				and car accidents appear to be the biggest
				concerns ( Curtis et al 2001).
Â
				Â
Â
				11. Sika deer population in Japan
Â
				Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Sika deer Cervus
A brief global review to asses the damage				nippon population in eastern Hokkaido, Japan,
caused to cultivated crops by wild animals				increased rapidly during 1990-1998 . This
around the world. The review was attempted in				increase appeared to have halted in
response to a recommendation of ICAR Regional				1999-2000, probably due to increased hunting
Committee No.1 held in Oct, 2007 at Solan,				and nuisance control. The period of rapid
H.p. presided over by Hon'ble Director				increase was associated with a
General, ICAR Dr. Mangala Rai inauguration				disproportionately rapid increase in
was chaired by Hon'ble Agriculture Minister				compensation paid for deer damage to crops.
J&K, Jenab Ab. Aziz Zargar.				We studied changes in diet during 1990-2000,
				as reflected by stable isotope ratios of C
Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â				and N in tooth collagen. We hypothesized that
Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â				isotope ratios would demonstrate dietary
Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â				shifts related to population levels and/or
Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â				time, and that shifts in isotope ratios would
Â Â Â Author				be consistent with increasing individualÂ
				consumption of pasture grasses at higher
Â				population levels, delta 13C isotope ratios
				of tooth collagen in 3 year-old sika
Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â				indicated a diet dominated by C3 plants
Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â				throughout the period, and that forage
Â Â Â Â Â				species other than pasture grasses and dwarf
				bamboo Sasa nipponica ( the main crop and
Â				woodland understory plants,Â respectively)
				were important elements. There was a
Â				significant decline in the delta 13C isotope
				ratio duringÂ 1990-2000 in both males and
Â				females, delta 15N values showed no trend
				with time for males, but increased over time
Published by:Â Director State Agricultural				in females. Indices of population (Sightings
Management and Extension Training Institute				per Unit Effort, SPUE) were negatively
of Kashmir (SAMETI-K) , SKUAST-K , Shalimar ,				correlated with female delta 13C, and
Post Box: 461, G.P.O, Srinagar.				positively correlated with female delta 15N,
				values indicating a shift in diet over the
Â				period , especially among females. This shift
				may be related to population and/or offtake
Â				levels, in particularÂ the rapid increase
				in female offtake for nuisance control and
Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â				hunting during the period. The data are
Â Â Â Â Â Publication No: SAMETI/Pub/3				consistent with a relative increase in
1000/January, 2008				pasture grass consumption per individual at
				higher population levels, however, otherÂ
Â				explanations of the data are equally
				plausible. Possible dietary changes, and
Â				other factors, influencing the observed shift
				in isotope ratios are discussed. Although
Â				statistically significant, the magnitude of
				dietary shiftsÂ nevertheless appeared
P.O.Box: 461, GPO, Srinagar, E.Mail: Â Â Â				small, and did not provide evidence which
Â Â Â Â Â Â Phone:Â Â Â Â Â Â				would justify modifying the current policy,
0194-2461317,0194-2463460,0194-2463459Â				of limiting crop damage through managed
				population reduction to about 25% of peak
Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Cell: Â Â Â Â				levels( Halley et al 2006).
Â Â Â 09419095342Â ;
Residence:0194-2431508,2435741				Â

Â				12.Â White-tailed deer damages

Â				Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â White-tailed deer
				(Odocoileus virginianus) may cause more
Â				damage than any other species of wildlife.
				These damages include crop loss, automobile
Introduction:				and aviation collisions, disease
				transmission, environmental degradation, and
Â				destruction of ornamentalÂ plantings. One
				practical method of controlling deer damage
Â Â Â Â Â Â Wild animal-human				is the use of exclusionary fences. The
conflicts have started since beginning of				relatively high cost of labor and materials
human era from Adam and Eve. This conflict of				required to build effective fences has
wilderness made man to hide in caves and he				limited most applications to the protection
was called as "Cave man". Slowly, with his				of orchards, vegetable farms, other high
advancement it is he who invented Axe and				-value resources, and mitigation of human
other weapon in stone and iron ages to				health and safety risks. Improvements in
frighten the wild animals, initially. Later				fence technology resulting in less expensive,
on he hunted them to save himself. This				yet effective fence have expanded the use of
feeling of uncertainty and fear of wild				fence to manage damage caused by deer. Fence
animals and wilderness reduced with the				typically installed to manage white-tailed
invention of fire. He made sharp weapons of				deer damage include wire or plastic mesh,
bones and iron. These initial weapons were				electrified high-tensile steel wire, and
the beginning of this conflict, Animal human				electrified polytape or polyrope fence. They
conflict.				reviewed the scientific literature on fencing
				to determine which fence designs would be the
Thirty thousand years ago, the human				most effective for excluding deer in a
population rose to 6 million. They were still				variety of situations (VerCauteren et al
hunters. With the invention of fire, he set				2006).
fire a vast majority of sanctuaries, which
scared wild life and they migrated from his				Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â The installation
neighborhood. Many forests, hills and				of fences to protect agricultural products,
difficult terrains were still beyond the				natural resources, or other areas from deer
reach of man three thousand years before,				(Odocoileus spp.) can be expensive and
although human population has increased to 60				potential benefits of fencing are difficult
million. Man has already started primitive				to quantify. A rational method is needed to
agriculture. He had made his terrains and				help evaluate whether fencing can be cost
wild life scared by him left his close				effective and which fence designs will be
habitats and searched for fresh abodes. Man				optimal for particular applications. They
by now had lust for fur, horns, ornaments and				describe an interactive, dynamic simulation
other forest resources. He invented many				model that conducts economic analyses and
means to frighten whole wild life. He became				predicts economic benefit associated with
a "Danger "not only for wild animals but for				fences for crops relative to area and
his own species, environment and				perimeter of protected plot, value of crop,
eco-biodiversity.				percentage of crop damaged by deer annually
				prior to fencing, efficacy of fence, and
Three hundred years ago he industrialized				costs of fence materials and labor. Users of
crop production and produced enough food, for				the model can easily adjust these variables
nearly 600 million people. This continued and				to fit their individual situations and needs.
from 30 year now he is feeding 6000 million				By running a series of simulations, model
people. Today we have a global food security				users can answer questions related directly
for 7.5 billion. Human food security gains				to fence efficacy and cost-effectiveness
resulted in reduction of all other wild				(VerCauteren K et al 2006).
species, thus, the origin of wild- life-
human conflict is the lust of man for more				Â
food, more luxury or sometimes fun for
hunting or fur. This reduced wild life				13. Corn damage by wild life
reserves and now a open conflict came into
existence.				Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Corn damages in
				USA were estimated at 6.6 per hac due to wild
Many man-wild life conflicts have been				life. The white tailed deer was the wild
reported from Gir forests of Gujarat, Rajaji				animal responsible for loss. The average
National Park in UP and many other states				hacters owned by farmers were 125 out of
where forest lands became cultivable lands.				which 55 hectares were sown corn. (Tzilkowsi
Elephants, wild boars, monkeys, squirrels,				et al 2002).
deer , birds like crows, parakeets, wild
dogs, jackals, gaur, sambur, langure, fowls,				Â
pea cocks, neilgai, Hippos, biats,
blackbirds, rodents, wild pigs, feral				14. Â Deer Damage
species, primates, beetles, foxes, pigeons,
feral hogs and a variety of other species				Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Deer (Odocoileus
damage crops. The carnivores even attack				spp.) can cause substantial damage to
human too. These attacks are for search of				agricultural crops, resulting in economic
food or their loss of habitat. Many such				losses for producers. They developed a deer
accidents came to be known in Jammu and				activated bio-acoustic frightening device to
Kashmir. The bear leopod and other wild				reduce white-tailed deer (O, virginianus)
animals are reducing in number. Their				damage in agricultural fields. The device
habitats used by human.				considered of an infrared detection system
				that activated an audio component which
The human causalities are due to carnivorous				broadcast recorded distress and alarm calls
species, but herbivores inflict economic and				of deer. They tested the device against
human losses too. The crop damages by wild				unprotected controls in cornfields during the
life has been the new threat to agricultural				silking-tasseling stage of growth in July
productivity throughout the world. This also				2001. The device was not effective in
concerns us in Asia and India. This review is				reducing damage: track-count indices
aimed to find out:				(F1,4=0.02), corn yield (F1,9=1.27,P=0.289),
				and estimated damage levels (F1,10=0.87,
1.Â Â Â Â Â Â Extent of damage to				P=0.374) did not differ between experimental
crops.				and control fields. The size
				(F2,26=1,00,P=0.380), location
2.Â Â Â Â Â Â Nature of crop damage				(F2,25=0.39,P=0.684), and percent overlap
				(F2,25=0.20,P=0.818) of use-areas of
3.Â Â Â Â Â Â Ways and means to				radiomarked female deer did not differ
prevent these losses.				between during and after treatment periods.
				They concluded that the deer-activated
4.Â Â Â Â Â Â A strategic planning to				bio-acoustic device was not effective in
drive a line between wildlife conservation				protecting cornfields in this study; however,
and farm economics especially in India.				the device may be more effective in small
				areas such as gardens or for high value crops
Â				that do not grow tall enough to offer
				protective cover (Gilsdorf et al 2004).
Executive Abstracts and Strategic
elementaries: [EASE]				Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â White -tailed
				deer (Odocoileus virginianus) cause millions
1.Â Â Â Â Importance				of dollars of damage to agricultural crops
				annually . They tested the effectiveness of
Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â				propane exploders and Electronic Guards
Â Â Â Species causing crop damages ranges				(Pocatello Supply Depot, Pocatello, Id). For
from elephant's wild birds, monkeys,				reducing deer damage in corn fields during
squirrels, deer, parakeet, wild dogs, foxes,				the silking-tasseling stage of growth.
deer and many others like Neilgai. On an				Track-count indices (F2,7=0.70,P=0.532), corn
average this damage to crops by wild animals				yield (F2,6=0.14, P=0.873), and estimated
amounts to U$ 961 per hectare. It is much				damage levels (F2, 12=1,45 P=0.272) did not
more than an Indian Farmer earns from a				differ between experimental and control
hacter annually. Therefore, by these				fields. The size (F2,11=0.08,P =0.924),
estimates, the damages are spectacular and				LocationÂ (F2,9=0.30, P=0.750), and percent
economically important.				overlap (F2,9=0.46, P=0.644) of use -areas of
				radiomarked female deer in the vicinity of
2.Â Â Â Â Â Â Human Elephant conflicts				experimental fields did not differÂ among
(HEC):				before, during and after 18 day treatment
				periods. In a related study, we placed
Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â i) Economic				propane exploders in cornfields within
Losses:				use-areas of 12 radiomarked female deer. The
				deer did not react appreciably to the
Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â				devices; the size (F2, 17=0.08, P=0.921),
Â Â Â Among elephants crop raiding is				location (F2,22=1.37, P=0.275), and percent
common. The crops near their home ranges are				overlap (f2,10=0.47, P=0.636) of deer use
damaged more. Elephants damaging crops had				areas did not differ among before, during,
twice big ranges than those who did not				and after 14 day treatment periods. They
damage the crops. Thus, more proximity of the				conclude that propane exploders and
crops near their ranges are prone to crops				Electronic Guards have limited potential for
damages. Train accidents instigate elephants				reducing deer damage to corn at the
more to crop or human damages. Indonesia saw				silking-tasseling stage (Glisdorf et al
more frequent raids of elephants on crops.				2004l.
Human elephant conflict (HEC) is frequent and
poses serious challenges in Africa. Both male				Â
groups and family group attacks have been
observed. HEC losses in West Bengal were				Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â A welfare measure
worth 3.2 croses of Rupees. This damage				for wildlife damage to Ontario (Canada) field
occurred in 3368sq kms.radius. The numerical				crop producers during the 1998 was. The
number of elephants was 62 only. Assam				welfare measure presented in this study
observes damages to the woodcutters by				provides a more accurate picture of losses
elephants Asian wild Elephants raid and				from wildlife damage to agricultural. Other
damage crops in herds of 10-13 individuals or				damage estimates based on yield loss
big herds comprising 50-74 elephants. In				overstate the damage since benefits from
Darjeeling district alone over an area of 200				wildlife are netted out. Results for the
kms. East to west, in last two decades 277				Ontario field crop producers indicate that
houses were demolished by elephants, killing				the magnitude of the difference between the
66 people in 5 districts. As a result of this				value of the yield loss and the welfare
conflict 23 elephants lost their lives. In				measure of damage is approximately 50%. This
2001, economic loss of the order of US fifty				difference indicates that most farmers were
thousand dollars was estimated to be				willing to tolerate the wildlife damage they
inflicted by elephants. This scenario				experienced (Heigh et al 2001).
necessitates comprehensive measures to be
taken to lessen these damage. The review of				Â
the measures, around the world suggest
following few studies to be undertaken and				15. Grapevine damages
resultant measures to be applied to lessen
these damages.ii)Â Â Â Â Mitigation of				Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â In field trials
losses:				in 1999-2000 in Gundla Pochampally, Andhra
				Pradesh, India , the incidence of damage to
Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Methods developed				green grapevines was studied. Visits to the
and used to mitigate crop damages by				vines by bats begain around 45 minutes after
elephants consisted of frightening of animals				sunset and foraging continued until 1 hourÂ
by drum beating, firegracks or even air gun				before sunrise. Damage occurred to ripe fruit
fires. Guarding the crops by fences or even				only, and increased around harvesting time,
using electric fencing or raising poles and				percentage damage ranged from 0 to 100%
wiring may be effective. Chemical based				(Bhargavi et al, 2001).
deterrents, and electric fencing have been
found to reduce crop damages. High voltage				Â
electric fencing using energizers in west
have prevented wild animals damaging crop but				16. Â Â Hippo damage
this preposition may not be applicable in
areas where even habitations do not have				Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â The introduction
access to electricity. However, this method				to the paper described the various ecological
may act as a temporary boundary separating				effects known to result from grazing,
wild and domestic habitats. This could				movement along paths, and wallowing by the
prevent intrusions from sly vatic to domestic				common hippo. Hippopotamus amphibious. The
foci. Guarding fields, digging trenches,				study reported was carried out at Kainji Lake
modifying cropping patterns have a				National Park., Nigeria, during Â the dry
possibility of reducing man elephant				season periods {of 1991 and 1992} . The
conflicts or Human elephant conflicts. A 30%				method adopted by Agnew, A.D.Q. (East African
open space between two habitats may help to				Wildlife Journal (1966) 4, 38-46) was used to
avoid HEC. This means a distance to be				assess hippo foraging footprints at three
maintained between cropping fields and				hippo pool sites. A total of 32 footpaths
elephant habitates. A proper investigation on				were enumerated out of which 18 were located
these lines is needed. A grid based				at Kaii hippo pool site, while the frequency
geographical information system (GIS) with a				of utilization of paths was also higher for
25Km2 resolution may help to have cost				this site relative to those in other area.
effective data source to analyze these				The upstream-downstream trend in hippo
situations. There is urgent need of				occupancy of dry Â season water pools could
identifying spatial predictors of HEC. On the				expose the hippo to crop damage conflicts at
basis of this study one can suggest or plan				the peripheral areas.
mitigation strategies, early warnings of
attacks, use of barriers and deterrents. The				Â
utility of the methods could be assessed for
land use and livelihood strategies to limit				17.Â Hygo-Japan-mammal crop damages
HEC.
				Â
Â
				Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Mammals
3.Â Â Â Â Â Â Dear-Nilgai Damages.				inhabiting Â Hyogo consist of seven orders,
				17 families and about 40 species. Except for
Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â A survey of 2500				Lagomorpha andÂ Artiodactyla, the remaining
farms in UK revealed that 69% (n=192) cereal				five orders among them include species which
crops were damaged by deer. This damage				need some protection and they total about 55%
costed Â£500 per annum per farm. Damages				of all species excluding extinct, introduced
varied with deer density. In USA too deer				and feral species. Ecological information in
damages comprised of crop loss, landscape				Hyogo prefecture has been accumulated in few
damages, car accidents and property damages.				protection-required species there is no
Nilgai damages alongwith deer damages are				recent information of spatial distribution on
common in India too. Tree cover of Acacia in				Oriental water-shrew, Japanese noctule-bat
the area is generally used as shelter by				and Japanese dormouse; and little information
Nilgai. We have encountered huge crop damage				on Japanese shrew, Japanese horse-shoe bat,
in Mathura (CIRG) and nearby area by Nilgai				Japanese large -footed bat. Schreiber's
visits. Grazing and browsing of Nilgai				bent-winged bat, Japanese tube-nosed bat,
inflict losses on farms. This is regarded as				common parti-colored bat, Japanese squirrel,
a mammalian crop threat by the farmers. This				Japanese small flying-squirrel, Japanese
behaviour of their inflict ozone injury to				giant flying-squirrel, smith's vole harvest
the young sapling, so precious for the growth				mouse and Japanese badger. Damage and
of trees in Indian semi-arid farms.				population managements is also necessary in
				sika deer and Japanese wild boar, to reduce
Â				their crop--damaging, and comprehensive
				management in Japanese black bear, an
Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Corn damages by				endangered local population, to prevent
deer in USA amounts to 6.6.% per hectare. In				human-bear fatal accident. Habitat alteration
an area where a farmer owned 125 hectare on				due to human activities, however, has
an average 55 hectares were used to sow corn.				affected the population sizes and spatial
There is a 6.6% loss of the product which is				distribution of all these, mammals in Hyogo.
a huge economic loss. Similar damages by deer				Habitat management has priority over damage.
in Ontario, Canada, Portugal, Japan, South				Fundamental and applied scientific studies
America and other parts of the world have				and understanding of ecology and wildlife
been reviewed. In Virginia too a study				management science needs promotion by
involving 1506 agricultural producer farmers				citizens (Mitani M 2000).
revealed 58% of them experiencing deer
damages. Ways and means to prevent such				Â
attacks on crops have been reviewed. Most of
the possible measures to be adopted are				18. Monkey damage
similar to these described for elephants
(HEC).				Â

Â				Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Forty-seven
				property owners in Entebbe, Uganda were
4.Â Â Â Other Mammal and bird damages				questioned about vervet monkey activities on
				their property. The objective was to
Â				investigate the interactions between humans
				and vervet monkeys in an agricultural area
Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Monkey damages				adjacent to a forest zone. Other studies have
maize, sweet potato and other crops. It is				reported that farms located within 300 m of a
suggested to reduce or change cropping				forested boundary probably incur the greatest
pattern or alternating with non-agricultural				risk of crop-raiding. Two other factors that
activities near location of monkey habitats.				may influence susceptibility to vervet
Various methods are reviewed. Bat damage,				crop-raiding were also examined: the types of
Hygo crop damages in Japan, Grape wine				crops grown and the types of direct
damages by bats in Andra Pradesh, India have				preventive measures used. The effect of these
been studied. Crop economic loss assessment				two factors on vervet crop-raiding is not
has been reviewed in these pages. Clover				straight forward. However, the distance a
rather than grass can reduce wild mammal				property is located from the forest edge is
damages. Alley cropping of black walnuts				an important factor influencing vervet crop
helped to save soyabean and maize crop				raiding. Surveyed Â gardens 200 m from theÂ
damages. Pesticide damages wildlife and				forest edge received significantly less crop
minimize their attacks, enclosures and other				-raiding than farms locatedÂ 100 or 50m
electric fencing help to avoid such damage.				(P=0.040,< alpha=0.05). In this study, 8 out
Can one use harmful means to save crops, need				of 13 farmers (61.5%) said that maize, sweet
a suitable strategy to preserve ecology and				potato, or both, were most likely to be
biodiversity. Both crops and wild animals				damaged by the vervets. Other crops singled
need security and conservation. A management				out by the farmers are receiving damage by
strategy is needed to safeguard human and				the vervets were bananas, mangoes, groundnuts
wildlife equally. Â A policy framework is				and yam. They suggest that the development of
envisaged.				non-agriculturalÂ activities on land
				directly adjacent to forested areas may
Â				reduce vervet crop -raiding by deterring
				vervets from traveling greater distances from
Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Blackbird crop				the forest edge due to increased obstacles or
damage in USA amounts to 5-8 million dollars.				risks Â (Saj et al 2001).
A considerable sum of crores of rupees have
been estimated to be damages in the form of				Â
crop, human and property losses by wild
animals, birds and other rodents in India.				19. Bait damage
Many measures to reduce these losses are
needed and have been reviewed.				Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â The longevity of
				zinc phosphide (ZP) on whole wheat bait Â
Â				was determined at the end of the "dry" and
				"wet" seasons, Â is Western Australia..
Â				While the total rainfall during the two
				trials was 74 mm and 155mm, substantial loss
Â				of ZP was recorded only after significant
				rainfall events. Irrespective of season, the
Â				loss of ZP from bait applied in bait stations
				was minimal. The maximum recorded loss was
Â				17% and this occurred afterÂ 21 days'
				exposure during the wet season where the bait
Review				stations were placed in-crop. Nevertheless,
				regardless of the application method,
1. Wild animals damaging crops				sufficient ZP always remained on the wheat
				bait. Theoretically Â it was lethal to rats
To elephants wild boar, porcupine, rheus				for at least 8-14 days (Twigg et al., Â
macaque (Macaca mulatta), hoary-bellied				2001).
squirrel, barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak),
red-breasted parakeet (Psittacula alexandri),				20.Venezuela experience:
and wild dog are wild animals damaging crops.
				Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â In Venezuela,
Methods developed and being used to mitigate				lethal control of wintering Dickcissels
man-wildlife conflict include, frightening				(Spiza Americana) is considered a threat to
the animals; guarding the crops; and using				the species survival. To help farmers protect
some sort of scarecrow and traps (Miah et al				their rice and sorghum crops from by
2001).				Dickcissels and to minimize the killing of
				large numbers of these birds, alternative
Accurate estimation of crop damage by				non-lethal crop protection measures are
wildlife (raccoons, white-tailed deer, and				needed. To that end, the responses of captive
coyotes) often requires labour-intensive				Dickcissels to three bird-repellent chemicals
sampling procedure. Variable area transect				(anthraquinone,methyl anthranilate and
(VAT) sampling has been identified as a				methiocarb) applied to rice seed were
potential labour-saving alternative to				evaluated. In one-cup feeding trials,
quadrat sampling ( Engerman et al 2002).				treatments of methiocarb (0.05% g/g, applied
				as Mesurol 75%Â wettable powder) and
Â				anthraquinone (0.5%, applied as Flight
				Control) reduced consumption of rice by 70%
2. Wild life Human conflicts				relative to pretreatment consumption. Other
				anthraquinone treatments (0.05,0.1%) and
Agricultural landowners suffer in the form of				methyl authranilate (0.05%) were inrffective.
damage to crops, livestock, and other				In two -cup trials, with untreated millet as
property. Some wildlife agencies maintained				the alternative food, consumption of rice
abatement and compensation programmes. A				treated with 0.05 and 0.1%Â anthraquinone
model of deer-inflicted crop damage used to				was reduced by 90% relative to pretreatment
facilitate agency decisions regarding deer				levels. Overall, Dickcissels responded to the
densities and distribution, abatement use,				repellents similarly to the red-winged
and to forecast compensation. The model is				blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus). Because
applied to field-level compensation claims in				Flight Control has been used successfully to
Wisconsin, USA. The results are consistent				reduce blackbird use of rice fields in the
with theory, ( Yoder J, 2002).				USA, the prospect is good for successful
				reduction of damage to repening rice by
Â				Dickcissels in Venezuela, particularly if
				repellent use is coupled with the
3.Â Crop Economic loss due to wild life				establishment of alternative feeding sites (
				Avery et al 2001). Deer selected carrots over
Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â People's				all green manure crops.
perceptions were discerned through
participatory discussions covering 419				Â
households distributed in 10 villages in the
buffer zone. Traditional uncodified rights of				21. Nilgai damages in India
local people were substantially reduced
through policy interventions set in since				Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Crop-damage by
1860s. Local people as well as tourists have				nilgai has been widely reported from India.
been excluded from the core zone covering an				Â Are give Nilgai is for increasing in this
area of 625 km2 since 1982. Deterioration of				region. Lack of natural predators,
rural economy due to damage to crop and				deforestation overgrazing and the protection
livestock by wildlife and, termination of				of these animals from Hindu communities are
opportunities of income from wild medicinal				reasons for their overpopulation. Tree cover
plant resources and tourism in the core zone				of Acacia are generally used by nilgai as a
were the key negative impacts of conservation				day time shelter but not food, Â therefore
policy felt by more than 90% of respondents.				it goes for crop-raiding in the late evening
Mean annual economic loss per household was				and at night, jumping across 6-7 feet high
estimated as Rs.1285, Rs. 1195 and Rs.156 due				stone wall, barbed fencing and fences of dead
to damage caused by wildlife to food crops,				or live thorny plant material and any other
fruit trees and beehives, respectively, Rs.				fencing/barrier made to protect the crop-.
1587Â due to ban on collection of wild				Due to habit of both grazing as well as
medicinal plants for marketing and Rs.7904				browsing they devore every kind of farm
due to ban on tourism in the core zone. The				species (both rabi and kharif crops). It has
Reserve authority granted compensation for				been observed that eating less but destroying
livestock killed by wildlife but it was				more by trampling and causing damage are
hardly 5% of the market value of killed				therefore regarded as serious mammalian crop
livestock as assessed by the people. People				pest and farmers wants to get ride of this
did not appreciate much the present benefits				unconventional pest. The farmers chase them
from the reserve management in the form of				away by just following them by making loud
wages for carrying out afforestation work,				sound by crackers or air gun fires, following
partial compensation for livestock				through tractors, empty tin or dried pumpkin
depredation and availability of solar power				filled with small stones and connected with
devices, wool, and spinning devices.				strings. Technically, carrots(enclosures),
Approximately 95% respondents identified				trenching or power fencing are suggested to
empowerment of local people in respect of				mitigate the crop damage. Secondly, animals
realizing income from timber from dead				could be translocated to wildlife sanctuaries
diseased trees in community forests, income				from the sites they seen overcrowded or
from medicinal plants in buffer zone and				severe crop raiding problems (Goyal et al
opening of the core zone for tourism as				2000).
potential development options. Improvement in
rural economy, the prime concern of local				Â
people, has not received as much attention as
legal enforcement of protection by the				22.Â Pesticides and wildlife
reserve management. There is a need for
developing policies and management actions				A range of monitoring activities has shown
that serve the economic interests of local				impacts of anticholinesterase pesticides on
people together with enhancement of				UK wildlife, and continued risks are evident
environment conservation goal (Maikhuri et al				from laboratory and field experiments,
2001).				together with the scale of use in the field.
				Along with other broad spectrum insecticides,
Â				many organophosphates have adverse direct
				effects on non-target arthropods in farmland,
4.Â Crop selection:				and so are likely to contribute towards
				indirect effects of pesticides on farmland
Damage was less (34%) in experimental carrot				biodiversity. The anticholinesterase
as multiple crop thanÂ carrots as only crop				insecticides have both lethal and sublethal
planted (62% damage). Staggered plantings of				effects on aquatic wildlife, however the
canola, which continuously produced flowers,				history of recent incidents of damage to
was the most effective lure crop of the green				river ecology following the wider use of
manure crops we tested. Carrot producers				synthetic pyrethroid sheep dips, illustrates
should use electric fences or 2.4-m woven				the need to consider the implications of
wire fences, perhaps combined with staggered				changes in the use of alternative products
canola plantings, to reduce carrot				when reviewing these insecticides ( Burn
depredations ( Schwab et al 2001).				2000).

Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â The colver,				Â
rather than fertilized grass, is more
effective cover crop on AFAs, against damage				Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â The use of
by migratory geese. The sward should be				anthraguinone-based flight control and methyl
managed to encourage clover growth, which				anthranilate-based non toxic avian foraging
would probably involve frequent cutting but				repellent we used to avoid crop damage by
no fertilizer. Further research is needed on				sandhill cranes. Thought both repellents were
clover replenishment rate over the winter				effective at deterring cranes from treated
season and possible benefits of clover leys				corn, neither has been tested on corn under
to other wild life (McKay et al 2001). Alley				field conditions. (Blackwell et al 2001).
cropping of black walnuts and percent with
maize and soyabean rotations may avoid will				Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Oak seedlings
animal damages. Tree -crop ratio of 1:10 may				were scientifically raised. Seedling
help( Godsey, 2000).				mortality and wild life browse damages were
				minimal when certain herbicide mixture was
Â				used. Biologically and aesthetically, the
				procedure was extremely successful (Ezell et
5.Â Elephan- human conflicts:				al 1999).

Conflicts between elephants (Elephas maximus)				Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Pre-commercially
and human occur in Rajaji National Park				thinned (forests are less prone to moose
(RNP), Uttar Pradesh, one of eleven reserves				damage (McLaren et al, 2000).
designated in India, to conserve Asian
elephants. Elephant-human. The conflicts in				Â
RNP from 1996 to 1999 were studied, and all
human and elephant deaths or injuries caused				23.Â Pesticide use in conflicts
by conflict were recorded. The impact of
human colonies on elephant movement was				Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Pesticides can
studied in 18 villages along 17 km of the				cause damage to man and beneficial organism.
sourthern boundary of the study site and 4				Some sub-lethal effects of pesticides were
village in the Chilla-Motichur corridor.				studied in birds with a view to identifyingÂ
Three male and four female elephants were				characteristic biochemical responses that
radio tracked for 1-2 years. Primary				may be useful for the monitoring of exposure
conflicts included crop raiding, competition				to sub-lethal levels in the field. Pesticides
between humans and elephants for vegetation,				were used; demeton-S-methyl,
and elephant mortality due to train				(DSM),chlorpyriphos, chlorfenviphos,
accidents. Adult males that raided crops had				triazophos, pirimicarb, methiocarb and
home ranges twice as large as adult males				permethrin. Blood was collected before
that did not raid crops. Elephants only				dosing, and 2,6,24,48 and 72 hours after the
damaged crop of fields that occurred within				treatment from the brachial vein of birds.
their home ranges. Field trails of chemical				Enzyme, activities were assayed in the plasma
based deterrents and electric fencing should				or serum samples obtained. The assays used
be tried to reduce crop damage. Train speeds				were GOT,MHD, GDH, SDH,GAMMA GT and ChE. The
need to be reduced to prevent accidental				results showed an increase in plasma and
elephant mortality (Williams et al 2001).				serum GOT and gamma-GT levels were found in
				all animals treated with the previous
Â				pesticides. The level of ChE increased in
				birds after treatment with permethrin. It was
Wild Elephant damages:				concluded that the pesticides cause
				structural and functional changes in the
Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â A rapid village				liver and also, the measurement of the
and field assessments, data survey showed.				previous parameter activities may be useful
Elephants raided crops at a rate of 0.53				for assessing exposure and sub-lethal effects
elephants per day in Indonesia. The frequency				of pesticides on the wildlife (Dahamna et al
of crop raiding was related to vegetation				2004).
type along the park border, the size and
presence of rivers, and the distance to the				Â
park's Elephant Training Centre (ETC), which
houses about 150 captive elephants. Wild				Â
elephants damaged at least 450000Â m2 of
maize, rice, cassava, beans and other annual				24. IPM and crop losses
crops, and close to 900 coconut, banana and
other perennial trees in the area surveyed.				Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â The queensland
Elephants killed or injured 24 .Villagers try				sugar, industry has recently implemented a
to reduce elephant damage by guarding fields,				comprehensive integrated pest management
digging trenches between the park and their				(IPM) system to minimize crop losses from two
fields, and modifying their cropping				antive rodent species, Rattus sordidus
patterns. Elephants-human conflict decreases				(canefield rat) and Melomy burtoni (climbing
the probability of support from local people				rat). These species inflicted approximately
for conservation efforts. The approaches are				$25M of damage in a major outbreak in theÂ
suggested consist of elephant trenches,				1999-2000 seasons. Both of these rodents are
electric fences, external support to affected				listed as common wildlife under the schedules
villages, and compensation to villagers for				of the queensland nature Conservation
any damage caused (Nyhus et al 2000).				(Wildlife) Regulation 1994. The IPM programme
				is based on understanding the ecology and
Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â This study				biology of each species. It incorporates a
explores land use conflict in south east				large-scale monitoring programme aimed at
Kajiado District, Kenya. The results of				providing early warning of imminent rodent
household surveys conducted with farmers and				build up to avert major outbreaks. The
herders in 1977 and 1996 to examine changes				industry has alsoÂ developed a memorandum
in land management strategies are compared.				of understanding with Queensland State
The conflict reflects ongoing competition				Government, which delivers on the industry's
over access to scarce land and water				pest management needs, while providing an
resources between herding, farming and				improved system of accountability for the
wildlife are the reason of damage of crops.				taking of two of Queenslands native wildlife
This man-animal conflict needs understanding				species. The consensus reached between the
the conditions that have created the present				cooperating parties (The Bureau of sugar
conflicts (Compbell et al 2000).				Experiment Stations, CANEGROWERS,
				regionally-based Cane Productivity Services,
It is, therefore, suggested that 30% open				and the outcomes can be negotiated between
space be used as a basic division for				rural industry and environmental interests
stratifying thickets into low -use and				(Hunt et al 2004)Â .
high-use categories for deer density
estimation. The proportions of each type				Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â In Areas around
could be derived from grid-square				Lake Mburo National Park ,large wild animals
measurements of aerial photographs (Latham J				wander in close proximity to human settlement
2000).				. This poses serious conflict in terms of
				crop damage. The integration of conservation
Â				with other land uses is difficult where
				densely settled agricultural land surrounds a
Â				protected area potentially containing problem
				animals, as is the case for several parks in
Human elephant conflict				Africa and Asia. The intensity of crop
				raiding was quantified through the use of
Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Human-elephant				random crop quadrants/plots and area
conflict (HEC) in Africa occurs wherever				estimation techniques in a portion of raided
these two species coincide, and poses serious				fields. The animal species concerned were
challenges to wild life managers, local				documented from observations, footprints and
communities and elephants alike. Mitigation				any other marks left behind. Three variables
requires a details understanding of				were tested as predictors of damage; human
underlying patterns and processes. Although				population density, distance from the park
temporal patterns of HEC are relatively				boundary and season. In this study data is
predictable, spatial variation has shown few				presented regarding crop loss in the
universal trends, making it difficult to				different seasons of the year, analysis of
predict where conflict will take place. Crop				crop damage variation and animal species
raiding was further subdivided into incidents				involved in crop loss. A diverse assemblage
involving only male elephants or family				of animals foraged on subsistence crops and
groups. A relatively fine-resolution,				analysis of crop damage revealed significant
systematic, grid -based method was used to				crop depreciation by wildlife( Kagoro et al
assign the locations of conflict incidents,				2004).
and spatial relations with underlying
variables were explored using correlation				Â
analysis and logistic regression. Crop
raiding was clustered into distinct conflict				Â
zones. Both occurrence and intensity could be
predicted on the basis of the area under				Â
cultivation and, for male elephant groups,
proximity to major settlement. Conversely,				25.Â Hawai Pest
incidents human injury and death were less
predictable but were correlated with				Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â The apple snail,
proximity to roads. A grid-based geographical				P.canaliculata, is an aquatic freshwater
information system (GIS) with a 25km2				snail native to South America, Originally
resolution utilizing cost-effective data				imported to Hawai'i as pets for the aquarium
source, combined with simple statisticalÂ				trade, they were soon introduced into wetland
tools, was capable of identifying spatial				plots known as "lo's" where taro (Colocasia
predictors of HEC, At finer resolutions				esculenta), an economically and culturally
spatial autocorrelation compromised the				significant crop, is grown. Some individuals
analyses. Synthesis and application. These				reasoned that the snails, being edible, could
results suggest that spatial correlates of				be harvested as food, and that raising the
HEC can be identified, regardless of the sex				snails along with the taro in the "Io's"
of the elephants involved. Moreover, the				would provide income supplemental to the taro
method described here is fully transferable				harvest with minimum additional input. This
to other sites for comparative analysis of				introduction of snails into the taro "lo'i"
HEC. Using these results to map vulnerability				however, proved to be a disaster. Farmers
will enable the development and deployment of				failed to take into account the voracity ,
appropriate conflict mitigation strategies,				reproductive potential, and rapid growth of
such as guarding, early warning systems,				the snails. Because of the ideal conditions
barriers and deterrents. The utility of such				in the taro "lo'i", the snailsÂ multiplied
methods and their strategic deployment should				rapidly and fed heavily on the taro shoots
be assessed alongside alternative land-use				and corns in many cases, destroying a
and livelihood strategies that limit				complete crop before harvest time. Hindisight
cultivation within the elephant range (Sitati				has shown that the snails are dissipated via
et al 2003).				the irrigation system throughout the "lo'i"
				and then spread to the surrounding wetland
Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Human elephant				areas. Large breeding populations are now
conflicts (HEC) in west Bengal was an				established in wetland areas on the islands
economic loss worth 3.2 crores. This much				of Hawai'e, O'ahu, Kaua'I, and Maui. Some
damage occurred in 3368 sq km radius				ofÂ these wetlands are wildlife preserves
inhibiting 62 elephants (Singh et al 2002)				with state and federal mandates that restrict
				the potential methods of eradication.
Â				Background information is provided on both
				P.canaliculata and taro to fully explain the
6. Â Â Kerala Survey				challenges and opportunities that this
				situation presents (Tamaru et al 2006).
Crop damage by wild animals in Kerala, India,
was studied from 1993 to 1996. Data were				Â
collected from the offices of the Kerala
Forest Department, field survey and from the				26.Â Chemical repellents
intensive study area at Marayur, Idukki
District. Forty-five species of crops were				Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Chemical feeding
destroyed by wild animals in Kerala, the				repellents applied to ripening sunflower
species commonly destroyed by wild animals				might help reduce blackbird (lcteridae)
were paddy, coconut plam , plantains ,				damage, which is a chronic agricultural
cassava , arecanut, coffee, oil plam , pepper				problems from seed information harvest.
, jack tree, mulberry and manago. The main				However, cost are high to develop and
animals involved in crop damage were elephant				register new repellents for agricultural use.
(Elephas maximus), gaur (Bos gaurus),sambar				In 2003 and 2004, we evaluated feeding
(Cervus unicolor), wild boar (Sus scrofa),				repellency ofÂ 8 pesticides registered by
bonnet macaque (Macaca radiate), common				the Environmental Protection Agency for use
langur (Presbytis entellus), blacknaped hare				in sunflower. Caged red-winged blackbirds
(Lepus nigricollis) and pea fowl (Pavo				(Agelaius phoeniceus) were fed unshelled
cristatus). Among these, elephants andÂ				sunflower seeds treated with the following
wild board gave maximum damage . Of the total				pesticides: 5 pyrethroid insecticides, an
compensation claimed by the farmers, only				organochlorine, an organophosphorus, and a
8.2% was sanctioned by the Kerala Forest				gungicide. Compared to untreated refernce
Department. The highest crop damage (30%) was				groups, feeding rates were reduced for 4 of
recorded from the forest ranges coming under				the 5 pyrethroid insecticides. Only the
the Northern Circle: pinapple (47%) , sweet				organophosphorus (chlorpyrifos), however,
potato (47%), tapioca (42%), alocasia (39%) ,				significantly decreased feeding rates. More
beans (25%) and plantains (23%) recorded				research on repellency effects of this
highest percentage of damage. In the				product in field efficacy trials is probably
intensive study area at Marayur, 28 species				warranted based on the results of our cage
of crops were damaged and highest damage was				experiments. Depending on timing of
during the summer months. At maximum damage				application, registered insecticides with
was due to elephant (72%) followed by gaur				blackbird feeding repellency could provide
(62%) , sambar (17%) and wild boar (16%) .				supplemental economic benefits to sunflower
Tiger (Panthera tigris), panther (leopard)				producers through dual purpose use ((Linz et
(Panthera pardus) and wild dog (Conine				al 2006).
alpinus) were the main cattle lifters in the
state. A total of 31 deaths and 64 injuries				Â
caused by wild animals were recorded from the
state during the period 1983 to 1993.				27. Persistent organic pollutants (POPS)
Thirteen indigenous methods used for
controlling the crop damage had been				Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Persistent
identified. High voltage electric fencing				organic pollutants (POPs) have spread
using energizer was effective for stopping				throughout the global environment to threaten
elephants and other herbivores from entering				human health and damage ecosystems, with
the agriculture fields. Crop damage is found				evidence of POPs contamination in wildlife,
to be linked to the cropping pattern and				human blood, and breast milk documented
location of the agriculture fields. Short				worldwide. Based on data from the US Food and
term and long-term measures needed to prevent				Drug Administration, this article provides a
the crop damage are discussed (JaysonÂ				brief overview of POPs residues in common
EA,1999).				foods in the USA food supply. The analysis
				focuses on 12 chemical compounds now targeted
Â				for an international phase out under the
				Stockholm convention on POPs. The available
7. Â Bird crop damages				information indicates that POPs residues are
				present in virtually all categories of foods,
Â				including baked goods, fruit, vegetables,
				meat, poultry, and dairy products. Residues
Use of non-lethal method to avoid crop				of five or more persistent toxic chemicals in
damages by bird have been reported. Blueberry				a single food item are not unusual, with the
damages by cedar waxwings (Bombycilla				most commonly found POPs being the pesticides
cedrotun were minimized. (Avery et al 2002).				DDT ( and its metabolites, such as DDE) and
				dieldrin. Estimated daily doses of dieldrin
Â				alone exceed the US Environmental Protection
				Agency and US Agency for Toxic Substances
8. Wild Bird damage				Disease Control reference dose for children.
				Given the widespread occurrence of POPs in
Â				the food supply and the serious health risks
				associated with even extremely small levels
Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â In the northern				of exposure, prevention of further food
Great Plains of USA,Â conflicts between				contamination must be a national health
red-winged black birds (Agelaius phoeniceus)				policy priority in every country.
and sunflower (Helianthus annus)Â growers				Implementation of the Stockholm Convention
have intensified since the late 1960s dueÂ				will prevent further accumulation of
to the expandedÂ commercial production of				persistent toxic chemicals in food. Early
sunflowers. We studied the potential				ratification and rapid implementation of this
population effects of the removal of up to 2				treaty should be an urgent priority for all
million red-winged blackbirds annually under				governments (Schafer et al 2002).
a 5 year programme of baiting during spring
with DRC-1339 (3-choloro-4 methalalanine)				Â
treated rice. They also examined whether
lethal control, in combination with current				28. Netherland experiences
levels of breeding habitat management, would
be cost effective in decreasing depredation				Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Traditionally,
of sunflower crops duringÂ late summer.				pink-footed geese Anser Brachyrhynchus
They evaluated the cost benefit ration for 4				wintering in Denmark, the Netherlands and
culling scenarios involving (1) variable				Belgium have used the Danish sites only
annual cullus, not exceeding 2 million birds,				during mild winter, rapidly moving southwards
with and without density compensation (i.e.				in case of cold spells. Since the 1980s, an
,a positive density-dependent response) on				increasing number of geese have remained on
adult survival and (2) culls of 2 million				the Danish wintering grounds despite cold
birds annually with and without density				spells, foraging on pastures Because winter
compensation .We constructed a red -winged				wheat represented a reliable and profitable
blackbird population modelÂ represented as				food source even in sever winter, the recent
an age-based matrix and calibrated to stable				change in Agricultural practice has enhanced
growth. We assumed a total population of 27				the development of a new wintering strategy
million birds on 1 April (week 1),				of pink-footed geese, allowing a northward
representing the red-winged blackbird				expansion of their winter range. Potentially,
breeding population staging in eastern				this will increase the crop damage conflict
Southern Dakota and migrating into North				and may lead to further population growth (
Dakota.Under each culling scenario, we				Therkidsen et al 2000).
reduced the stable red-winged blackbird
population (Equally for females and males)				Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Enclosure trials
and project the population through week 23 of				near Huron, CA in the San Joaquin Valley from
the annual cycle (2 Sep). We then evaluated				12 to 23 January 1999 , determine the
the associated costs of the management				efficacy of Flight Control TM (50%
relative to potential sunflower crop losses,				anthraquinone) and Mesurol R (75% methiocarb)
assuming $0.07 in damage per bird andÂ 4%				in preventing horned lark damage to lettuce
loss to other factors. Variable annual culls,				seedlings. Flight control TM (FC) and Mesurol
likely the more biologically realistic model				R were evaluated as foliar sprays at
scenarios, yielded mean annual removals of 1				application rates of 2.79 and 2.27 kg ha-1,
240 560 (SE=12 328) birds with density				respectively. Horned lark damage to lettuce
compensation and 1 231 620 (SE=28 811) birds				seedlings treated with anthraquinone was
without density compensation,, with cost				greater (p=0.015) than for methiocarb R, 60
benefit ratios of 1:2.3 and 1:3.6,				versus 20% , respectively, and seedlings in
respectively. Annual intrinsic rates for the				control plots were 100% destroyed. While this
model population overÂ the 5 year period				level of damage is probably unacceptable to
ranged from 1-4 to 4.8%. Considering				lettuce growers, it should be remembered that
potential variability in the effectiveness of				the enclosure situation caused an
the cull andÂ the combination of direct and				artificially high bird pressure on the crop.
indirect costs,we contendÂ that the				Further studies in open fields under a more
realized benefits to sunflower growers by				normal bird pressure are warranted ( York et
lethal control of red-winged blackbiards via				al 2000).
spring baiting , in combination with current
nonlethal management efforts, would likely be				Â
negligible (Blackwell et al 2003).
				29. Ozone injury
Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â The efficacy of
hydrolyzed casein (HC) and retail products				Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Incidence and
that contain HC in reducing deer damage to				severity of visible foliar ozone injury on
trees and shrubs was determined in a field				cutleaf coneflower (Rudbeckia laciniata L.)
experiments conducted in USA during 2004-05.				and crown-bread (Verbesina Occidentalis
The results of the experiments indicate the				Walt). Were determined .It is thus a matter
suitability of HC as a deer repellent.				of consideration that zone injury may harm
Technical grade HC completely eliminated				vegetation harmed by browsing or even
browsing damage to evergreen shrubs				cutting. Ozone injury was greatest on the
(Gaultheria shallon) and conifers (Thuja				lower leaves for both species sampled with
plicata). Retail sources of HC were not as				over 95% of the injured leaves occurring on
effective as the pure hydrolyzed protein				the lower 50% of the plant. This is the first
(Kimball et al 2005).				report of foliar ozone injury on these plant
				species in situ, in the Park, illustrating
Â				the great variability in symptom expression
				with time, and within and between populations
Â				( Chappelka et al 2003).

9. Blackbird damages				Â

Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â The economic				30. Protected arrears and humans
impact of blackbirds can be severe to rice
producers in the United States. One approach				Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Knowledge of
to managing this damage is the application of				conflicts between people and protected areas
bird-deterrent chemical to the crop. Previous				is required for the design of sustainable
pilot trials suggested that caffeine offered				conservation strategies for the management of
potential as a safe, economical bird				most protected areas. The study identifies
repellent. In this study, cage feeding				the causes of conflicts between local people
trialsÂ with female red -winged blackbirds				and the Benous Wildlife Conservation Area
and male brown headed cowbirds confirmed that				(BWCA), which includes the Benous National
a treatment rate of 25000 ppm caffeine on				Park, In northern Cameroon. Informal
rice seed reduced consumption as much as 76%				interviews and questionnaires were
. Trials with mixed species blackbirds flocks				administered to 114 households in three
inÂ a 0.2-ha flight pen resulted in just 4%				communities, and to 17 park staff and 7
loss of caffine-treated rice compared to 43%				professional hunting guides from July
loss of untreated rice. . Field trials of a				-October 1997. Crop damage affected 86% of
10 000 ppm caffeine treatment in Louisiana				the surveyed household, with 31% of crop
revealed > 90% of caffeine-treated rice seed				income lost on average, and with the damage
remained unconsumed on days 2 and 3 of the				varying significantly between communities.
study whereas blackbirds consumed > 80% of				Elephants, baboons, patas monkeys. Warthogs
the untreated seed. As a rice seed treatment				and green parrots accounted for 97% of crop
to deter blackbirds, caffeine appears to be				damage, with the staple food maize andÂ
effective, economical and environmentally				millet being most affected. OfÂ the
safe, although additional aquatic toxicity				respondents 27% experienced livestock
testing is desirable. Improvements in				depredation, with 18% of livestock income
formulation will be needed to make the				lostÂ on average. The civet cat was the
compound practical for general agricultural				main predator. The involvement of local
spray applications and to extend the				people in illegal activities, theirÂ lack
adherence of caffeine to rice seeds in field				of access to natural resources, and damage by
conditions ((Avery et al 2005).				wildlife were identified as principal causes
				of conflicts. Local people, park staff and
Â				professional hunting guides had diverse and
				differing perceptions about the causes of the
10. Deer damage				conflicts and made various suggestions for
				reduction of wildlife damage including animal
A questionnaire was distributed to over 2500				scaring and controlled shooting. We conclude
farms to know damageÂ caused by lowland				that, under current wildlife policy, conflict
deer to crops, trees and vegetation. Results				between people and BWCA Â (Bonous Wildlife
from the questionnaire showed that 69%				Conservation area) is difficult to resolve.
(n=1192) of responding farmers had deer on				To reduce conflicts and promote sustainable
their holdings and that Roe and Fallow were				conservation, we suggest co-management of
the most frequently seen species. On those				wildlife involving all stakeholders,
farms with deer present, cereals were the				establishment of crop damage control teams,
most commonly damaged crop (44%), but only				and promotion of tangible benefits to Â
15% of these farmers claimed that the annual				local people. There may be a requirement for
cost of damage to cereals exceeded Â£500				site -specificity in management strategies
each year for the whole farm. Validation				(Weladji et al 2003).
assessments were based on two visits to
assess deer damage to the crop, with a deer				Â
species/density assessment during the March
assessment and an assessment of grain yield				31. Low technology use to avoid damages
and quality during the August assessment.
Respondents were generally accurate in the				Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â It is
density and species of deer reported. The				suggested that an integrated,
percentage of the farm suffering damage				community-based, low technological approach
attributable to deer was very variable,				will be the most sustainable solution to this
generally being higher at the first				conflict ( Osborn et al 2003).
assessment than the second. The figures
calculated for yield loss were generally low,				Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Blackbirds
Farmers were poor at estimating the economic				(lcteridae) annually damage US$5-8 million of
impact of deer damage when compared to				ripening sunflower in the northern Great
validation data, but a number of parameters				Plains. Baiting blackbirds with
may have changed in the two years between the				avicide-treated rice during spring migration
questionnaire distribution and validation,				might reduce the regional breeding
including changes in deer density, crop				populations. birds can be successfully baited
rotations, and the marked drop in grain				with avicide-treated rice placed in corn
prices, which may account for some of the				stubble (Linz et al 2003).
inaccuracies. There were no statistically
significant relationships between deer damage				Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Plant
assessments and yield loss, either for				debris accumulation is viewed as a key factor
individual species or both species combined.				determining small mammal abundance and
The relationship between Roe deer damage at				potential damage in low-till agricultural
the harvest assessment and Roe deer density				((Stermer et al 2003) areas.
was significant (Post et al, 2001).
				Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â The projected
Wildlife managers must consider the public's				total value of crop yield losses due to
preferences for wildlife population levels				wildlife damage for buffer zone villages
when determining management policies. 849				located in Garhwal Himalaya in about Rs.5 38
farmers, hunters and the general public of				620 (US$15 389). Besides food grain,
Maryland. USA, were surveyed in 1996 to				horticultural crops i.e apple, also suffered.

1 A B C D 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113

Everything about fox hunting

blueridgehunt.com keyword stats provided by brainquick.com

Most current MSN search phrases:

Crop Damages by Wild Animals Global View Country Report and Reviews in 1-10 Sections

blueridgehunt.com keyword stats
provided by brainquick.com