| Crop Damage by Wild Animalssection i | | | | Japan, increased rapidly during |
| general discussions | | | | 1990-1998 . This increase appeared to |
| G.M. Wani | | | | have halted in 1999-2000, probably due |
| Ph.D ; D.V.M (Germany) | | | | to increased hunting and nuisance |
| FN ISSGAPU, FN DAAD | | | | control. The period of rapid increase |
| Director Extension Education / SAMETI | | | | was associated with a disproportionately |
| Sher-e-Kashmir University of | | | | rapid increase in compensation paid for |
| Agricultural Sciences and Technology of | | | | deer damage to crops. We studied changes |
| Kashmir | | | | in diet during 1990-2000, as reflected |
| Shalimar, Srinagar, 191121 | | | | by stable isotope ratios of C and N in |
| Â | | | | tooth collagen. We hypothesized that |
| Â | | | | isotope ratios would demonstrate dietary |
| Â | | | | shifts related to population levels and |
| A brief global review to asses the | | | | or time, and that shifts in isotope |
| damage caused to cultivated crops by | | | | ratios would be consistent with |
| wild animals around the world. The | | | | increasing individual consumption of |
| review was attempted in response to a | | | | pasture grasses at higher population |
| recommendation of ICAR Regional | | | | levels, delta 13C isotope ratios of |
| Committee No.1 held in Oct, 2007 at | | | | tooth collagen in 3 year-old sika |
| Solan, H.p. presided over by Hon'ble | | | | indicated a diet dominated by C3 plants |
| Director General, ICAR Dr. Mangala Rai | | | | throughout the period, and that forage |
| inauguration was chaired by Hon'ble | | | | species other than pasture grasses and |
| Agriculture Minister J&K, Jenab Ab. Aziz | | | | dwarf bamboo Sasa nipponica ( the main |
| Zargar. | | | | crop and woodland understory plants, |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â | | | | respectively) were important elements. |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â | | | | There was a significant decline in the |
|                     | | | | delta 13C isotope ratio during |
| Â Â Â Author | | | | 1990-2000 in both males and females, |
| Â | | | | delta 15N values showed no trend with |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â | | | | time for males, but increased over time |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â | | | | in females. Indices of population |
| Â | | | | (Sightings per Unit Effort, SPUE) were |
| Â | | | | negatively correlated with female delta |
| Â | | | | 13C, and positively correlated with |
| Published by:Â Director State | | | | female delta 15N, values indicating a |
| Agricultural Management and Extension | | | | shift in diet over the period , |
| Training Institute of Kashmir (SAMETI-K) | | | | especially among females. This shift may |
| , SKUAST-K , Shalimar , Post Box: 461, | | | | be related to population and/or offtake |
| G.P.O, Srinagar. | | | | levels, in particular the rapid |
| Â | | | | increase in female offtake for nuisance |
| Â | | | | control and hunting during the period. |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â | | | | The data are consistent with a relative |
| Publication No: SAMETI/Pub/3/1000 | | | | increase in pasture grass consumption |
| January, 2008 | | | | per individual at higher population |
|  | | | | levels, however, other explanations of |
| Â | | | | the data are equally plausible. Possible |
| Â | | | | dietary changes, and other factors, |
| P.O.Box: 461, GPO, Srinagar, E.Mail: Â Â | | | | influencing the observed shift in |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Phone:Â Â Â Â Â Â | | | | isotope ratios are discussed. Although |
| 0194-2461317,0194-2463460,0194-2463459Â | | | | statistically significant, the magnitude |
|          Cell:        | | | | of dietary shifts nevertheless |
| 09419095342Â ; | | | | appeared small, and did not provide |
| Residence:0194-2431508,2435741 | | | | evidence which would justify modifying |
| Â | | | | the current policy, of limiting crop |
| Â | | | | damage through managed population |
| Â | | | | reduction to about 25% of peak levels( |
| Introduction: | | | | Halley et al 2006). |
| Â | | | | Â |
|       Wild animal-human conflicts | | | | 12. White-tailed deer damages |
| have started since beginning of human | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â White-tailed deer |
| era from Adam and Eve. This conflict of | | | | (Odocoileus virginianus) may cause more |
| wilderness made man to hide in caves and | | | | damage than any other species of |
| he was called as "Cave man". Slowly, | | | | wildlife. These damages include crop |
| with his advancement it is he who | | | | loss, automobile and aviation |
| invented Axe and other weapon in stone | | | | collisions, disease transmission, |
| and iron ages to frighten the wild | | | | environmental degradation, and |
| animals, initially. Later on he hunted | | | | destruction of ornamental plantings. |
| them to save himself. This feeling of | | | | One practical method of controlling deer |
| uncertainty and fear of wild animals and | | | | damage is the use of exclusionary |
| wilderness reduced with the invention of | | | | fences. The relatively high cost of |
| fire. He made sharp weapons of bones and | | | | labor and materials required to build |
| iron. These initial weapons were the | | | | effective fences has limited most |
| beginning of this conflict, Animal human | | | | applications to the protection of |
| conflict. | | | | orchards, vegetable farms, other high |
| Thirty thousand years ago, the human | | | | -value resources, and mitigation of |
| population rose to 6 million. They were | | | | human health and safety risks. |
| still hunters. With the invention of | | | | Improvements in fence technology |
| fire, he set fire a vast majority of | | | | resulting in less expensive, yet |
| sanctuaries, which scared wild life and | | | | effective fence have expanded the use of |
| they migrated from his neighborhood. | | | | fence to manage damage caused by deer. |
| Many forests, hills and difficult | | | | Fence typically installed to manage |
| terrains were still beyond the reach of | | | | white-tailed deer damage include wire or |
| man three thousand years before, | | | | plastic mesh, electrified high-tensile |
| although human population has increased | | | | steel wire, and electrified polytape or |
| to 60 million. Man has already started | | | | polyrope fence. They reviewed the |
| primitive agriculture. He had made his | | | | scientific literature on fencing to |
| terrains and wild life scared by him | | | | determine which fence designs would be |
| left his close habitats and searched for | | | | the most effective for excluding deer in |
| fresh abodes. Man by now had lust for | | | | a variety of situations (VerCauteren et |
| fur, horns, ornaments and other forest | | | | al 2006). |
| resources. He invented many means to | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â The installation of |
| frighten whole wild life. He became a | | | | fences to protect agricultural products, |
| "Danger "not only for wild animals but | | | | natural resources, or other areas from |
| for his own species, environment and | | | | deer (Odocoileus spp.) can be expensive |
| eco-biodiversity. | | | | and potential benefits of fencing are |
| Three hundred years ago he | | | | difficult to quantify. A rational method |
| industrialized crop production and | | | | is needed to help evaluate whether |
| produced enough food, for nearly 600 | | | | fencing can be cost effective and which |
| million people. This continued and from | | | | fence designs will be optimal for |
| 30 year now he is feeding 6000 million | | | | particular applications. They describe |
| people. Today we have a global food | | | | an interactive, dynamic simulation model |
| security for 7.5 billion. Human food | | | | that conducts economic analyses and |
| security gains resulted in reduction of | | | | predicts economic benefit associated |
| all other wild species, thus, the origin | | | | with fences for crops relative to area |
| of wild- life- human conflict is the | | | | and perimeter of protected plot, value |
| lust of man for more food, more luxury | | | | of crop, percentage of crop damaged by |
| or sometimes fun for hunting or fur. | | | | deer annually prior to fencing, efficacy |
| This reduced wild life reserves and now | | | | of fence, and costs of fence materials |
| a open conflict came into existence. | | | | and labor. Users of the model can easily |
| Many man-wild life conflicts have been | | | | adjust these variables to fit their |
| reported from Gir forests of Gujarat, | | | | individual situations and needs. By |
| Rajaji National Park in UP and many | | | | running a series of simulations, model |
| other states where forest lands became | | | | users can answer questions related |
| cultivable lands. Elephants, wild boars, | | | | directly to fence efficacy and |
| monkeys, squirrels, deer , birds like | | | | cost-effectiveness (VerCauteren K et al |
| crows, parakeets, wild dogs, jackals, | | | | 2006). |
| gaur, sambur, langure, fowls, pea cocks, | | | | Â |
| neilgai, Hippos, biats, blackbirds, | | | | 13. Corn damage by wild life |
| rodents, wild pigs, feral species, | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Corn damages in USA |
| primates, beetles, foxes, pigeons, feral | | | | were estimated at 6.6 per hac due to |
| hogs and a variety of other species | | | | wild life. The white tailed deer was the |
| damage crops. The carnivores even attack | | | | wild animal responsible for loss. The |
| human too. These attacks are for search | | | | average hacters owned by farmers were |
| of food or their loss of habitat. Many | | | | 125 out of which 55 hectares were sown |
| such accidents came to be known in Jammu | | | | corn. (Tzilkowsi et al 2002). |
| and Kashmir. The bear leopod and other | | | | Â |
| wild animals are reducing in number. | | | | 14. Â Deer Damage |
| Their habitats used by human. | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Deer (Odocoileus |
| The human causalities are due to | | | | spp.) can cause substantial damage to |
| carnivorous species, but herbivores | | | | agricultural crops, resulting in |
| inflict economic and human losses too. | | | | economic losses for producers. They |
| The crop damages by wild life has been | | | | developed a deer activated bio-acoustic |
| the new threat to agricultural | | | | frightening device to reduce |
| productivity throughout the world. This | | | | white-tailed deer (O, virginianus) |
| also concerns us in Asia and India. This | | | | damage in agricultural fields. The |
| review is aimed to find out: | | | | device considered of an infrared |
| 1.      Extent of damage to | | | | detection system that activated an audio |
| crops. | | | | component which broadcast recorded |
| 2.      Nature of crop damage | | | | distress and alarm calls of deer. They |
| 3.      Ways and means to prevent | | | | tested the device against unprotected |
| these losses. | | | | controls in cornfields during the |
| 4.      A strategic planning to | | | | silking-tasseling stage of growth in |
| drive a line between wildlife | | | | July 2001. The device was not effective |
| conservation and farm economics | | | | in reducing damage: track-count indices |
| especially in India. | | | | (F1,4=0.02), corn yield |
| Â | | | | (F1,9=1.27,P=0.289), and estimated |
| Executive Abstracts and Strategic | | | | damage levels (F1,10=0.87, P=0.374) did |
| elementaries: [EASE] | | | | not differ between experimental and |
| 1.    Importance | | | | control fields. The size |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â | | | | (F2,26=1,00,P=0.380), location |
| Species causing crop damages ranges from | | | | (F2,25=0.39,P=0.684), and percent |
| elephant's wild birds, monkeys, | | | | overlap (F2,25=0.20,P=0.818) of |
| squirrels, deer, parakeet, wild dogs, | | | | use-areas of radiomarked female deer did |
| foxes, deer and many others like | | | | not differ between during and after |
| Neilgai. On an average this damage to | | | | treatment periods. They concluded that |
| crops by wild animals amounts to U$ 961 | | | | the deer-activated bio-acoustic device |
| per hectare. It is much more than an | | | | was not effective in protecting |
| Indian Farmer earns from a hacter | | | | cornfields in this study; however, the |
| annually. Therefore, by these estimates, | | | | device may be more effective in small |
| the damages are spectacular and | | | | areas such as gardens or for high value |
| economically important. | | | | crops that do not grow tall enough to |
| 2.      Human Elephant conflicts | | | | offer protective cover (Gilsdorf et al |
| (HEC): | | | | 2004). |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â i) Economic Losses: | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â White -tailed deer |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â | | | | (Odocoileus virginianus) cause millions |
| Among elephants crop raiding is common. | | | | of dollars of damage to agricultural |
| The crops near their home ranges are | | | | crops annually . They tested the |
| damaged more. Elephants damaging crops | | | | effectiveness of propane exploders and |
| had twice big ranges than those who did | | | | Electronic Guards (Pocatello Supply |
| not damage the crops. Thus, more | | | | Depot, Pocatello, Id). For reducing deer |
| proximity of the crops near their ranges | | | | damage in corn fields during the |
| are prone to crops damages. Train | | | | silking-tasseling stage of growth. |
| accidents instigate elephants more to | | | | Track-count indices (F2,7=0.70,P=0.532), |
| crop or human damages. Indonesia saw | | | | corn yield (F2,6=0.14, P=0.873), and |
| more frequent raids of elephants on | | | | estimated damage levels (F2, 12=1,45 |
| crops. Human elephant conflict (HEC) is | | | | P=0.272) did not differ between |
| frequent and poses serious challenges in | | | | experimental and control fields. The |
| Africa. Both male groups and family | | | | size (F2,11=0.08,P =0.924), Location |
| group attacks have been observed. HEC | | | | (F2,9=0.30, P=0.750), and percent |
| losses in West Bengal were worth 3.2 | | | | overlap (F2,9=0.46, P=0.644) of use |
| croses of Rupees. This damage occurred | | | | -areas of radiomarked female deer in the |
| in 3368sq kms.radius. The numerical | | | | vicinity of experimental fields did not |
| number of elephants was 62 only. Assam | | | | differ among before, during and after |
| observes damages to the woodcutters by | | | | 18 day treatment periods. In a related |
| elephants Asian wild Elephants raid and | | | | study, we placed propane exploders in |
| damage crops in herds of 10-13 | | | | cornfields within use-areas of 12 |
| individuals or big herds comprising | | | | radiomarked female deer. The deer did |
| 50-74 elephants. In Darjeeling district | | | | not react appreciably to the devices; |
| alone over an area of 200 kms. East to | | | | the size (F2, 17=0.08, P=0.921), |
| west, in last two decades 277 houses | | | | location (F2,22=1.37, P=0.275), and |
| were demolished by elephants, killing 66 | | | | percent overlap (f2,10=0.47, P=0.636) of |
| people in 5 districts. As a result of | | | | deer use areas did not differ among |
| this conflict 23 elephants lost their | | | | before, during, and after 14 day |
| lives. In 2001, economic loss of the | | | | treatment periods. They conclude that |
| order of US fifty thousand dollars was | | | | propane exploders and Electronic Guards |
| estimated to be inflicted by elephants. | | | | have limited potential for reducing deer |
| This scenario necessitates comprehensive | | | | damage to corn at the silking-tasseling |
| measures to be taken to lessen these | | | | stage (Glisdorf et al 2004l. |
| damage. The review of the measures, | | | | Â |
| around the world suggest following few | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â A welfare measure for |
| studies to be undertaken and resultant | | | | wildlife damage to Ontario (Canada) |
| measures to be applied to lessen these | | | | field crop producers during the 1998 |
| damages.ii)Â Â Â Â Mitigation of | | | | was. The welfare measure presented in |
| losses: | | | | this study provides a more accurate |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Methods developed and | | | | picture of losses from wildlife damage |
| used to mitigate crop damages by | | | | to agricultural. Other damage estimates |
| elephants consisted of frightening of | | | | based on yield loss overstate the damage |
| animals by drum beating, firegracks or | | | | since benefits from wildlife are netted |
| even air gun fires. Guarding the crops | | | | out. Results for the Ontario field crop |
| by fences or even using electric fencing | | | | producers indicate that the magnitude of |
| or raising poles and wiring may be | | | | the difference between the value of the |
| effective. Chemical based deterrents, | | | | yield loss and the welfare measure of |
| and electric fencing have been found to | | | | damage is approximately 50%. This |
| reduce crop damages. High voltage | | | | difference indicates that most farmers |
| electric fencing using energizers in | | | | were willing to tolerate the wildlife |
| west have prevented wild animals | | | | damage they experienced (Heigh et al |
| damaging crop but this preposition may | | | | 2001). |
| not be applicable in areas where even | | | | Â |
| habitations do not have access to | | | | 15. Grapevine damages |
| electricity. However, this method may | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â In field trials in |
| act as a temporary boundary separating | | | | 1999-2000 in Gundla Pochampally, Andhra |
| wild and domestic habitats. This could | | | | Pradesh, India , the incidence of damage |
| prevent intrusions from sly vatic to | | | | to green grapevines was studied. Visits |
| domestic foci. Guarding fields, digging | | | | to the vines by bats begain around 45 |
| trenches, modifying cropping patterns | | | | minutes after sunset and foraging |
| have a possibility of reducing man | | | | continued until 1 hour before sunrise. |
| elephant conflicts or Human elephant | | | | Damage occurred to ripe fruit only, and |
| conflicts. A 30% open space between two | | | | increased around harvesting time, |
| habitats may help to avoid HEC. This | | | | percentage damage ranged from 0 to 100% |
| means a distance to be maintained | | | | (Bhargavi et al, 2001). |
| between cropping fields and elephant | | | | Â |
| habitates. A proper investigation on | | | | 16. Â Â Hippo damage |
| these lines is needed. A grid based | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â The introduction to |
| geographical information system (GIS) | | | | the paper described the various |
| with a 25Km2 resolution may help to have | | | | ecological effects known to result from |
| cost effective data source to analyze | | | | grazing, movement along paths, and |
| these situations. There is urgent need | | | | wallowing by the common hippo. |
| of identifying spatial predictors of | | | | Hippopotamus amphibious. The study |
| HEC. On the basis of this study one can | | | | reported was carried out at Kainji Lake |
| suggest or plan mitigation strategies, | | | | National Park., Nigeria, during  the |
| early warnings of attacks, use of | | | | dry season periods {of 1991 and 1992} . |
| barriers and deterrents. The utility of | | | | The method adopted by Agnew, A.D.Q. |
| the methods could be assessed for land | | | | (East African Wildlife Journal (1966) 4, |
| use and livelihood strategies to limit | | | | 38-46) was used to assess hippo foraging |
| HEC. | | | | footprints at three hippo pool sites. A |
| Â | | | | total of 32 footpaths were enumerated |
| 3.      Dear-Nilgai Damages. | | | | out of which 18 were located at Kaii |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â A survey of 2500 | | | | hippo pool site, while the frequency of |
| farms in UK revealed that 69% (n=192) | | | | utilization of paths was also higher for |
| cereal crops were damaged by deer. This | | | | this site relative to those in other |
| damage costed £500 per annum per farm. | | | | area. The upstream-downstream trend in |
| Damages varied with deer density. In USA | | | | hippo occupancy of dry  season water |
| too deer damages comprised of crop loss, | | | | pools could expose the hippo to crop |
| landscape damages, car accidents and | | | | damage conflicts at the peripheral |
| property damages. Nilgai damages | | | | areas. |
| alongwith deer damages are common in | | | | Â |
| India too. Tree cover of Acacia in the | | | | 17. Hygo-Japan-mammal crop damages |
| area is generally used as shelter by | | | | Â |
| Nilgai. We have encountered huge crop | | | |          Mammals inhabiting  |
| damage in Mathura (CIRG) and nearby area | | | | Hyogo consist of seven orders, 17 |
| by Nilgai visits. Grazing and browsing | | | | families and about 40 species. Except |
| of Nilgai inflict losses on farms. This | | | | for Lagomorpha and Artiodactyla, the |
| is regarded as a mammalian crop threat | | | | remaining five orders among them include |
| by the farmers. This behaviour of their | | | | species which need some protection and |
| inflict ozone injury to the young | | | | they total about 55% of all species |
| sapling, so precious for the growth of | | | | excluding extinct, introduced and feral |
| trees in Indian semi-arid farms. | | | | species. Ecological information in Hyogo |
| Â | | | | prefecture has been accumulated in few |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Corn damages by deer | | | | protection-required species there is no |
| in USA amounts to 6.6.% per hectare. In | | | | recent information of spatial |
| an area where a farmer owned 125 hectare | | | | distribution on Oriental water-shrew, |
| on an average 55 hectares were used to | | | | Japanese noctule-bat and Japanese |
| sow corn. There is a 6.6% loss of the | | | | dormouse; and little information on |
| product which is a huge economic loss. | | | | Japanese shrew, Japanese horse-shoe bat, |
| Similar damages by deer in Ontario, | | | | Japanese large -footed bat. Schreiber's |
| Canada, Portugal, Japan, South America | | | | bent-winged bat, Japanese tube-nosed |
| and other parts of the world have been | | | | bat, common parti-colored bat, Japanese |
| reviewed. In Virginia too a study | | | | squirrel, Japanese small |
| involving 1506 agricultural producer | | | | flying-squirrel, Japanese giant |
| farmers revealed 58% of them | | | | flying-squirrel, smith's vole harvest |
| experiencing deer damages. Ways and | | | | mouse and Japanese badger. Damage and |
| means to prevent such attacks on crops | | | | population managements is also necessary |
| have been reviewed. Most of the possible | | | | in sika deer and Japanese wild boar, to |
| measures to be adopted are similar to | | | | reduce their crop--damaging, and |
| these described for elephants (HEC). | | | | comprehensive management in Japanese |
| Â | | | | black bear, an endangered local |
| 4.   Other Mammal and bird damages | | | | population, to prevent human-bear fatal |
| Â | | | | accident. Habitat alteration due to |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Monkey damages maize, | | | | human activities, however, has affected |
| sweet potato and other crops. It is | | | | the population sizes and spatial |
| suggested to reduce or change cropping | | | | distribution of all these, mammals in |
| pattern or alternating with | | | | Hyogo. Habitat management has priority |
| non-agricultural activities near | | | | over damage. Fundamental and applied |
| location of monkey habitats. Various | | | | scientific studies and understanding of |
| methods are reviewed. Bat damage, Hygo | | | | ecology and wildlife management science |
| crop damages in Japan, Grape wine | | | | needs promotion by citizens (Mitani M |
| damages by bats in Andra Pradesh, India | | | | 2000). |
| have been studied. Crop economic loss | | | | Â |
| assessment has been reviewed in these | | | | 18. Monkey damage |
| pages. Clover rather than grass can | | | | Â |
| reduce wild mammal damages. Alley | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Forty-seven property |
| cropping of black walnuts helped to save | | | | owners in Entebbe, Uganda were |
| soyabean and maize crop damages. | | | | questioned about vervet monkey |
| Pesticide damages wildlife and minimize | | | | activities on their property. The |
| their attacks, enclosures and other | | | | objective was to investigate the |
| electric fencing help to avoid such | | | | interactions between humans and vervet |
| damage. Can one use harmful means to | | | | monkeys in an agricultural area adjacent |
| save crops, need a suitable strategy to | | | | to a forest zone. Other studies have |
| preserve ecology and biodiversity. Both | | | | reported that farms located within 300 m |
| crops and wild animals need security and | | | | of a forested boundary probably incur |
| conservation. A management strategy is | | | | the greatest risk of crop-raiding. Two |
| needed to safeguard human and wildlife | | | | other factors that may influence |
| equally. Â A policy framework is | | | | susceptibility to vervet crop-raiding |
| envisaged. | | | | were also examined: the types of crops |
| Â | | | | grown and the types of direct preventive |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Blackbird crop damage | | | | measures used. The effect of these two |
| in USA amounts to 5-8 million dollars. A | | | | factors on vervet crop-raiding is not |
| considerable sum of crores of rupees | | | | straight forward. However, the distance |
| have been estimated to be damages in the | | | | a property is located from the forest |
| form of crop, human and property losses | | | | edge is an important factor influencing |
| by wild animals, birds and other rodents | | | | vervet crop raiding. Surveyed  gardens |
| in India. Many measures to reduce these | | | | 200 m from the forest edge received |
| losses are needed and have been | | | | significantly less crop -raiding than |
| reviewed. | | | | farms located 100 or 50m (P=0.040,< |
| Â | | | | alpha=0.05). In this study, 8 out of 13 |
| Â | | | | farmers (61.5%) said that maize, sweet |
| Â | | | | potato, or both, were most likely to be |
| Â | | | | damaged by the vervets. Other crops |
| Â | | | | singled out by the farmers are receiving |
| Review | | | | damage by the vervets were bananas, |
| 1. Wild animals damaging crops | | | | mangoes, groundnuts and yam. They |
| To elephants wild boar, porcupine, rheus | | | | suggest that the development of |
| macaque (Macaca mulatta), hoary-bellied | | | | non-agricultural activities on land |
| squirrel, barking deer (Muntiacus | | | | directly adjacent to forested areas may |
| muntjak), red-breasted parakeet | | | | reduce vervet crop -raiding by deterring |
| (Psittacula alexandri), and wild dog are | | | | vervets from traveling greater distances |
| wild animals damaging crops. | | | | from the forest edge due to increased |
| Methods developed and being used to | | | | obstacles or risks  (Saj et al 2001). |
| mitigate man-wildlife conflict include, | | | | Â |
| frightening the animals; guarding the | | | | 19. Bait damage |
| crops; and using some sort of scarecrow | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â The longevity of zinc |
| and traps (Miah et al 2001). | | | | phosphide (ZP) on whole wheat bait  was |
| Accurate estimation of crop damage by | | | | determined at the end of the "dry" and |
| wildlife (raccoons, white-tailed deer, | | | | "wet" seasons, Â is Western Australia.. |
| and coyotes) often requires | | | | While the total rainfall during the two |
| labour-intensive sampling procedure. | | | | trials was 74 mm and 155mm, substantial |
| Variable area transect (VAT) sampling | | | | loss of ZP was recorded only after |
| has been identified as a potential | | | | significant rainfall events. |
| labour-saving alternative to quadrat | | | | Irrespective of season, the loss of ZP |
| sampling ( Engerman et al 2002). | | | | from bait applied in bait stations was |
| Â | | | | minimal. The maximum recorded loss was |
| 2. Wild life Human conflicts | | | | 17% and this occurred after 21 days' |
| Agricultural landowners suffer in the | | | | exposure during the wet season where the |
| form of damage to crops, livestock, and | | | | bait stations were placed in-crop. |
| other property. Some wildlife agencies | | | | Nevertheless, regardless of the |
| maintained abatement and compensation | | | | application method, sufficient ZP always |
| programmes. A model of deer-inflicted | | | | remained on the wheat bait. |
| crop damage used to facilitate agency | | | | Theoretically  it was lethal to rats |
| decisions regarding deer densities and | | | | for at least 8-14 days (Twigg et al., Â |
| distribution, abatement use, and to | | | | 2001). |
| forecast compensation. The model is | | | | 20.Venezuela experience: |
| applied to field-level compensation | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â In Venezuela, lethal |
| claims in Wisconsin, USA. The results | | | | control of wintering Dickcissels (Spiza |
| are consistent with theory, ( Yoder J, | | | | Americana) is considered a threat to the |
| 2002). | | | | species survival. To help farmers |
| Â | | | | protect their rice and sorghum crops |
| 3. Crop Economic loss due to wild life | | | | from by Dickcissels and to minimize the |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â People's perceptions | | | | killing of large numbers of these birds, |
| were discerned through participatory | | | | alternative non-lethal crop protection |
| discussions covering 419 households | | | | measures are needed. To that end, the |
| distributed in 10 villages in the buffer | | | | responses of captive Dickcissels to |
| zone. Traditional uncodified rights of | | | | three bird-repellent chemicals |
| local people were substantially reduced | | | | (anthraquinone,methyl anthranilate and |
| through policy interventions set in | | | | methiocarb) applied to rice seed were |
| since 1860s. Local people as well as | | | | evaluated. In one-cup feeding trials, |
| tourists have been excluded from the | | | | treatments of methiocarb (0.05% g/g, |
| core zone covering an area of 625 km2 | | | | applied as Mesurol 75%Â wettable |
| since 1982. Deterioration of rural | | | | powder) and anthraquinone (0.5%, applied |
| economy due to damage to crop and | | | | as Flight Control) reduced consumption |
| livestock by wildlife and, termination | | | | of rice by 70% relative to pretreatment |
| of opportunities of income from wild | | | | consumption. Other anthraquinone |
| medicinal plant resources and tourism in | | | | treatments (0.05,0.1%) and methyl |
| the core zone were the key negative | | | | authranilate (0.05%) were inrffective. |
| impacts of conservation policy felt by | | | | In two -cup trials, with untreated |
| more than 90% of respondents. Mean | | | | millet as the alternative food, |
| annual economic loss per household was | | | | consumption of rice treated with 0.05 |
| estimated as Rs.1285, Rs. 1195 and | | | | and 0.1%Â anthraquinone was reduced by |
| Rs.156 due to damage caused by wildlife | | | | 90% relative to pretreatment levels. |
| to food crops, fruit trees and beehives, | | | | Overall, Dickcissels responded to the |
| respectively, Rs. 1587Â due to ban on | | | | repellents similarly to the red-winged |
| collection of wild medicinal plants for | | | | blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus). Because |
| marketing and Rs.7904 due to ban on | | | | Flight Control has been used |
| tourism in the core zone. The Reserve | | | | successfully to reduce blackbird use of |
| authority granted compensation for | | | | rice fields in the USA, the prospect is |
| livestock killed by wildlife but it was | | | | good for successful reduction of damage |
| hardly 5% of the market value of killed | | | | to repening rice by Dickcissels in |
| livestock as assessed by the people. | | | | Venezuela, particularly if repellent use |
| People did not appreciate much the | | | | is coupled with the establishment of |
| present benefits from the reserve | | | | alternative feeding sites ( Avery et al |
| management in the form of wages for | | | | 2001). Deer selected carrots over all |
| carrying out afforestation work, partial | | | | green manure crops. |
| compensation for livestock depredation | | | | Â |
| and availability of solar power devices, | | | | 21. Nilgai damages in India |
| wool, and spinning devices. | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Crop-damage by |
| Approximately 95% respondents identified | | | | nilgai has been widely reported from |
| empowerment of local people in respect | | | | India. Â Are give Nilgai is for |
| of realizing income from timber from | | | | increasing in this region. Lack of |
| dead/diseased trees in community | | | | natural predators, deforestation |
| forests, income from medicinal plants in | | | | overgrazing and the protection of these |
| buffer zone and opening of the core zone | | | | animals from Hindu communities are |
| for tourism as potential development | | | | reasons for their overpopulation. Tree |
| options. Improvement in rural economy, | | | | cover of Acacia are generally used by |
| the prime concern of local people, has | | | | nilgai as a day time shelter but not |
| not received as much attention as legal | | | | food, Â therefore it goes for |
| enforcement of protection by the reserve | | | | crop-raiding in the late evening and at |
| management. There is a need for | | | | night, jumping across 6-7 feet high |
| developing policies and management | | | | stone wall, barbed fencing and fences of |
| actions that serve the economic | | | | dead or live thorny plant material and |
| interests of local people together with | | | | any other fencing/barrier made to |
| enhancement of environment conservation | | | | protect the crop-. Due to habit of both |
| goal (Maikhuri et al 2001). | | | | grazing as well as browsing they devore |
| Â | | | | every kind of farm species (both rabi |
| 4. Crop selection: | | | | and kharif crops). It has been observed |
| Damage was less (34%) in experimental | | | | that eating less but destroying more by |
| carrot as multiple crop than carrots | | | | trampling and causing damage are |
| as only crop planted (62% damage). | | | | therefore regarded as serious mammalian |
| Staggered plantings of canola, which | | | | crop pest and farmers wants to get ride |
| continuously produced flowers, was the | | | | of this unconventional pest. The farmers |
| most effective lure crop of the green | | | | chase them away by just following them |
| manure crops we tested. Carrot producers | | | | by making loud sound by crackers or air |
| should use electric fences or 2.4-m | | | | gun fires, following through tractors, |
| woven wire fences, perhaps combined with | | | | empty tin or dried pumpkin filled with |
| staggered canola plantings, to reduce | | | | small stones and connected with strings. |
| carrot depredations ( Schwab et al | | | | Technically, carrots(enclosures), |
| 2001). | | | | trenching or power fencing are suggested |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â The colver, rather | | | | to mitigate the crop damage. Secondly, |
| than fertilized grass, is more effective | | | | animals could be translocated to |
| cover crop on AFAs, against damage by | | | | wildlife sanctuaries from the sites they |
| migratory geese. The sward should be | | | | seen overcrowded or severe crop raiding |
| managed to encourage clover growth, | | | | problems (Goyal et al 2000). |
| which would probably involve frequent | | | | Â |
| cutting but no fertilizer. Further | | | | 22. Pesticides and wildlife |
| research is needed on clover | | | | A range of monitoring activities has |
| replenishment rate over the winter | | | | shown impacts of anticholinesterase |
| season and possible benefits of clover | | | | pesticides on UK wildlife, and continued |
| leys to other wild life (McKay et al | | | | risks are evident from laboratory and |
| 2001). Alley cropping of black walnuts | | | | field experiments, together with the |
| and percent with maize and soyabean | | | | scale of use in the field. Along with |
| rotations may avoid will animal damages. | | | | other broad spectrum insecticides, many |
| Tree -crop ratio of 1:10 may help( | | | | organophosphates have adverse direct |
| Godsey, 2000). | | | | effects on non-target arthropods in |
| Â | | | | farmland, and so are likely to |
| 5. Elephan- human conflicts: | | | | contribute towards indirect effects of |
| Conflicts between elephants (Elephas | | | | pesticides on farmland biodiversity. The |
| maximus) and human occur in Rajaji | | | | anticholinesterase insecticides have |
| National Park (RNP), Uttar Pradesh, one | | | | both lethal and sublethal effects on |
| of eleven reserves designated in India, | | | | aquatic wildlife, however the history of |
| to conserve Asian elephants. | | | | recent incidents of damage to river |
| Elephant-human. The conflicts in RNP | | | | ecology following the wider use of |
| from 1996 to 1999 were studied, and all | | | | synthetic pyrethroid sheep dips, |
| human and elephant deaths or injuries | | | | illustrates the need to consider the |
| caused by conflict were recorded. The | | | | implications of changes in the use of |
| impact of human colonies on elephant | | | | alternative products when reviewing |
| movement was studied in 18 villages | | | | these insecticides ( Burn 2000). |
| along 17 km of the sourthern boundary of | | | | Â |
| the study site and 4 village in the | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â The use of |
| Chilla-Motichur corridor. Three male and | | | | anthraguinone-based flight control and |
| four female elephants were radio tracked | | | | methyl anthranilate-based non toxic |
| for 1-2 years. Primary conflicts | | | | avian foraging repellent we used to |
| included crop raiding, competition | | | | avoid crop damage by sandhill cranes. |
| between humans and elephants for | | | | Thought both repellents were effective |
| vegetation, and elephant mortality due | | | | at deterring cranes from treated corn, |
| to train accidents. Adult males that | | | | neither has been tested on corn under |
| raided crops had home ranges twice as | | | | field conditions. (Blackwell et al |
| large as adult males that did not raid | | | | 2001). |
| crops. Elephants only damaged crop of | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Oak seedlings were |
| fields that occurred within their home | | | | scientifically raised. Seedling |
| ranges. Field trails of chemical based | | | | mortality and wild life browse damages |
| deterrents and electric fencing should | | | | were minimal when certain herbicide |
| be tried to reduce crop damage. Train | | | | mixture was used. Biologically and |
| speeds need to be reduced to prevent | | | | aesthetically, the procedure was |
| accidental elephant mortality (Williams | | | | extremely successful (Ezell et al 1999). |
| et al 2001). | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Pre-commercially |
| Â | | | | thinned (forests are less prone to moose |
| Wild Elephant damages: | | | | damage (McLaren et al, 2000). |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â A rapid village and | | | | Â |
| field assessments, data survey showed. | | | | 23. Pesticide use in conflicts |
| Elephants raided crops at a rate of 0.53 | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Pesticides can cause |
| elephants per day in Indonesia. The | | | | damage to man and beneficial organism. |
| frequency of crop raiding was related to | | | | Some sub-lethal effects of pesticides |
| vegetation type along the park border, | | | | were studied in birds with a view to |
| the size and presence of rivers, and the | | | | identifying characteristic biochemical |
| distance to the park's Elephant Training | | | | responses that may be useful for the |
| Centre (ETC), which houses about 150 | | | | monitoring of exposure to sub-lethal |
| captive elephants. Wild elephants | | | | levels in the field. Pesticides were |
| damaged at least 450000Â m2 of maize, | | | | used; demeton-S-methyl, |
| rice, cassava, beans and other annual | | | | (DSM),chlorpyriphos, chlorfenviphos, |
| crops, and close to 900 coconut, banana | | | | triazophos, pirimicarb, methiocarb and |
| and other perennial trees in the area | | | | permethrin. Blood was collected before |
| surveyed. Elephants killed or injured 24 | | | | dosing, and 2,6,24,48 and 72 hours after |
| .Villagers try to reduce elephant damage | | | | the treatment from the brachial vein of |
| by guarding fields, digging trenches | | | | birds. Enzyme, activities were assayed |
| between the park and their fields, and | | | | in the plasma or serum samples obtained. |
| modifying their cropping patterns. | | | | The assays used were GOT,MHD, GDH, |
| Elephants-human conflict decreases the | | | | SDH,GAMMA GT and ChE. The results showed |
| probability of support from local people | | | | an increase in plasma and serum GOT and |
| for conservation efforts. The approaches | | | | gamma-GT levels were found in all |
| are suggested consist of elephant | | | | animals treated with the previous |
| trenches, electric fences, external | | | | pesticides. The level of ChE increased |
| support to affected villages, and | | | | in birds after treatment with |
| compensation to villagers for any damage | | | | permethrin. It was concluded that the |
| caused (Nyhus et al 2000). | | | | pesticides cause structural and |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â This study explores | | | | functional changes in the liver and |
| land use conflict in south east Kajiado | | | | also, the measurement of the previous |
| District, Kenya. The results of | | | | parameter activities may be useful for |
| household surveys conducted with farmers | | | | assessing exposure and sub-lethal |
| and herders in 1977 and 1996 to examine | | | | effects of pesticides on the wildlife |
| changes in land management strategies | | | | (Dahamna et al 2004). |
| are compared. The conflict reflects | | | | Â |
| ongoing competition over access to | | | | Â |
| scarce land and water resources between | | | | 24. IPM and crop losses |
| herding, farming and wildlife are the | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â The queensland sugar, |
| reason of damage of crops. This | | | | industry has recently implemented a |
| man-animal conflict needs understanding | | | | comprehensive integrated pest management |
| the conditions that have created the | | | | (IPM) system to minimize crop losses |
| present conflicts (Compbell et al 2000). | | | | from two antive rodent species, Rattus |
| It is, therefore, suggested that 30% | | | | sordidus (canefield rat) and Melomy |
| open space be used as a basic division | | | | burtoni (climbing rat). These species |
| for stratifying thickets into low -use | | | | inflicted approximately $25M of damage |
| and high-use categories for deer density | | | | in a major outbreak in the 1999-2000 |
| estimation. The proportions of each type | | | | seasons. Both of these rodents are |
| could be derived from grid-square | | | | listed as common wildlife under the |
| measurements of aerial photographs | | | | schedules of the queensland nature |
| (Latham J 2000). | | | | Conservation (Wildlife) Regulation 1994. |
| Â | | | | The IPM programme is based on |
| Â | | | | understanding the ecology and biology of |
| Human elephant conflict | | | | each species. It incorporates a |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Human-elephant | | | | large-scale monitoring programme aimed |
| conflict (HEC) in Africa occurs wherever | | | | at providing early warning of imminent |
| these two species coincide, and poses | | | | rodent build up to avert major |
| serious challenges to wild life | | | | outbreaks. The industry has also |
| managers, local communities and | | | | developed a memorandum of understanding |
| elephants alike. Mitigation requires a | | | | with Queensland State Government, which |
| details understanding of underlying | | | | delivers on the industry's pest |
| patterns and processes. Although | | | | management needs, while providing an |
| temporal patterns of HEC are relatively | | | | improved system of accountability for |
| predictable, spatial variation has shown | | | | the taking of two of Queenslands native |
| few universal trends, making it | | | | wildlife species. The consensus reached |
| difficult to predict where conflict will | | | | between the cooperating parties (The |
| take place. Crop raiding was further | | | | Bureau of sugar Experiment Stations, |
| subdivided into incidents involving only | | | | CANEGROWERS, regionally-based Cane |
| male elephants or family groups. A | | | | Productivity Services, and the outcomes |
| relatively fine-resolution, systematic, | | | | can be negotiated between rural industry |
| grid -based method was used to assign | | | | and environmental interests (Hunt et al |
| the locations of conflict incidents, and | | | | 2004)Â . |
| spatial relations with underlying | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â In Areas around Lake |
| variables were explored using | | | | Mburo National Park ,large wild animals |
| correlation analysis and logistic | | | | wander in close proximity to human |
| regression. Crop raiding was clustered | | | | settlement . This poses serious conflict |
| into distinct conflict zones. Both | | | | in terms of crop damage. The integration |
| occurrence and intensity could be | | | | of conservation with other land uses is |
| predicted on the basis of the area under | | | | difficult where densely settled |
| cultivation and, for male elephant | | | | agricultural land surrounds a protected |
| groups, proximity to major settlement. | | | | area potentially containing problem |
| Conversely, incidents human injury and | | | | animals, as is the case for several |
| death were less predictable but were | | | | parks in Africa and Asia. The intensity |
| correlated with proximity to roads. A | | | | of crop raiding was quantified through |
| grid-based geographical information | | | | the use of random crop quadrants/plots |
| system (GIS) with a 25km2 resolution | | | | and area estimation techniques in a |
| utilizing cost-effective data source, | | | | portion of raided fields. The animal |
| combined with simple statistical | | | | species concerned were documented from |
| tools, was capable of identifying | | | | observations, footprints and any other |
| spatial predictors of HEC, At finer | | | | marks left behind. Three variables were |
| resolutions spatial autocorrelation | | | | tested as predictors of damage; human |
| compromised the analyses. Synthesis and | | | | population density, distance from the |
| application. These results suggest that | | | | park boundary and season. In this study |
| spatial correlates of HEC can be | | | | data is presented regarding crop loss in |
| identified, regardless of the sex of the | | | | the different seasons of the year, |
| elephants involved. Moreover, the method | | | | analysis of crop damage variation and |
| described here is fully transferable to | | | | animal species involved in crop loss. A |
| other sites for comparative analysis of | | | | diverse assemblage of animals foraged on |
| HEC. Using these results to map | | | | subsistence crops and analysis of crop |
| vulnerability will enable the | | | | damage revealed significant crop |
| development and deployment of | | | | depreciation by wildlife( Kagoro et al |
| appropriate conflict mitigation | | | | 2004). |
| strategies, such as guarding, early | | | | Â |
| warning systems, barriers and | | | | Â |
| deterrents. The utility of such methods | | | | Â |
| and their strategic deployment should be | | | | 25. Hawai Pest |
| assessed alongside alternative land-use | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â The apple snail, |
| and livelihood strategies that limit | | | | P.canaliculata, is an aquatic freshwater |
| cultivation within the elephant range | | | | snail native to South America, |
| (Sitati et al 2003). | | | | Originally imported to Hawai'i as pets |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Human elephant | | | | for the aquarium trade, they were soon |
| conflicts (HEC) in west Bengal was an | | | | introduced into wetland plots known as |
| economic loss worth 3.2 crores. This | | | | "lo's" where taro (Colocasia esculenta), |
| much damage occurred in 3368 sq km | | | | an economically and culturally |
| radius inhibiting 62 elephants (Singh et | | | | significant crop, is grown. Some |
| al 2002) | | | | individuals reasoned that the snails, |
| Â | | | | being edible, could be harvested as |
| 6. Â Â Kerala Survey | | | | food, and that raising the snails along |
| Crop damage by wild animals in Kerala, | | | | with the taro in the "Io's" would |
| India, was studied from 1993 to 1996. | | | | provide income supplemental to the taro |
| Data were collected from the offices of | | | | harvest with minimum additional input. |
| the Kerala Forest Department, field | | | | This introduction of snails into the |
| survey and from the intensive study area | | | | taro "lo'i" however, proved to be a |
| at Marayur, Idukki District. Forty-five | | | | disaster. Farmers failed to take into |
| species of crops were destroyed by wild | | | | account the voracity , reproductive |
| animals in Kerala, the species commonly | | | | potential, and rapid growth of the |
| destroyed by wild animals were paddy, | | | | snails. Because of the ideal conditions |
| coconut plam , plantains , cassava , | | | | in the taro "lo'i", the snails |
| arecanut, coffee, oil plam , pepper , | | | | multiplied rapidly and fed heavily on |
| jack tree, mulberry and manago. The main | | | | the taro shoots and corns in many cases, |
| animals involved in crop damage were | | | | destroying a complete crop before |
| elephant (Elephas maximus), gaur (Bos | | | | harvest time. Hindisight has shown that |
| gaurus),sambar (Cervus unicolor), wild | | | | the snails are dissipated via the |
| boar (Sus scrofa), bonnet macaque | | | | irrigation system throughout the "lo'i" |
| (Macaca radiate), common langur | | | | and then spread to the surrounding |
| (Presbytis entellus), blacknaped hare | | | | wetland areas. Large breeding |
| (Lepus nigricollis) and pea fowl (Pavo | | | | populations are now established in |
| cristatus). Among these, elephants and | | | | wetland areas on the islands of Hawai'e, |
| wild board gave maximum damage . Of the | | | | O'ahu, Kaua'I, and Maui. Some of these |
| total compensation claimed by the | | | | wetlands are wildlife preserves with |
| farmers, only 8.2% was sanctioned by the | | | | state and federal mandates that restrict |
| Kerala Forest Department. The highest | | | | the potential methods of eradication. |
| crop damage (30%) was recorded from the | | | | Background information is provided on |
| forest ranges coming under the Northern | | | | both P.canaliculata and taro to fully |
| Circle: pinapple (47%) , sweet potato | | | | explain the challenges and opportunities |
| (47%), tapioca (42%), alocasia (39%) , | | | | that this situation presents (Tamaru et |
| beans (25%) and plantains (23%) recorded | | | | al 2006). |
| highest percentage of damage. In the | | | | Â |
| intensive study area at Marayur, 28 | | | | 26. Chemical repellents |
| species of crops were damaged and | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Chemical feeding |
| highest damage was during the summer | | | | repellents applied to ripening sunflower |
| months. At maximum damage was due to | | | | might help reduce blackbird (lcteridae) |
| elephant (72%) followed by gaur (62%) , | | | | damage, which is a chronic agricultural |
| sambar (17%) and wild boar (16%) . Tiger | | | | problems from seed information harvest. |
| (Panthera tigris), panther (leopard) | | | | However, cost are high to develop and |
| (Panthera pardus) and wild dog (Conine | | | | register new repellents for agricultural |
| alpinus) were the main cattle lifters in | | | | use. In 2003 and 2004, we evaluated |
| the state. A total of 31 deaths and 64 | | | | feeding repellency of 8 pesticides |
| injuries caused by wild animals were | | | | registered by the Environmental |
| recorded from the state during the | | | | Protection Agency for use in sunflower. |
| period 1983 to 1993. Thirteen indigenous | | | | Caged red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius |
| methods used for controlling the crop | | | | phoeniceus) were fed unshelled sunflower |
| damage had been identified. High voltage | | | | seeds treated with the following |
| electric fencing using energizer was | | | | pesticides: 5 pyrethroid insecticides, |
| effective for stopping elephants and | | | | an organochlorine, an organophosphorus, |
| other herbivores from entering the | | | | and a gungicide. Compared to untreated |
| agriculture fields. Crop damage is found | | | | refernce groups, feeding rates were |
| to be linked to the cropping pattern and | | | | reduced for 4 of the 5 pyrethroid |
| location of the agriculture fields. | | | | insecticides. Only the organophosphorus |
| Short term and long-term measures needed | | | | (chlorpyrifos), however, significantly |
| to prevent the crop damage are discussed | | | | decreased feeding rates. More research |
| (Jayson EA,1999). | | | | on repellency effects of this product in |
| Â | | | | field efficacy trials is probably |
| 7. Â Bird crop damages | | | | warranted based on the results of our |
| Â | | | | cage experiments. Depending on timing of |
| Use of non-lethal method to avoid crop | | | | application, registered insecticides |
| damages by bird have been reported. | | | | with blackbird feeding repellency could |
| Blueberry damages by cedar waxwings | | | | provide supplemental economic benefits |
| (Bombycilla cedrotun were minimized. | | | | to sunflower producers through dual |
| (Avery et al 2002). | | | | purpose use ((Linz et al 2006). |
| Â | | | | Â |
| 8. Wild Bird damage | | | | 27. Persistent organic pollutants (POPS) |
| Â | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Persistent organic |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â In the northern Great | | | | pollutants (POPs) have spread throughout |
| Plains of USA, conflicts between | | | | the global environment to threaten human |
| red-winged black birds (Agelaius | | | | health and damage ecosystems, with |
| phoeniceus) and sunflower (Helianthus | | | | evidence of POPs contamination in |
| annus)Â growers have intensified since | | | | wildlife, human blood, and breast milk |
| the late 1960s due to the expanded | | | | documented worldwide. Based on data from |
| commercial production of sunflowers. We | | | | the US Food and Drug Administration, |
| studied the potential population effects | | | | this article provides a brief overview |
| of the removal of up to 2 million | | | | of POPs residues in common foods in the |
| red-winged blackbirds annually under a 5 | | | | USA food supply. The analysis focuses on |
| year programme of baiting during spring | | | | 12 chemical compounds now targeted for |
| with DRC-1339 (3-choloro-4 | | | | an international phase out under the |
| methalalanine) treated rice. They also | | | | Stockholm convention on POPs. The |
| examined whether lethal control, in | | | | available information indicates that |
| combination with current levels of | | | | POPs residues are present in virtually |
| breeding habitat management, would be | | | | all categories of foods, including baked |
| cost effective in decreasing depredation | | | | goods, fruit, vegetables, meat, poultry, |
| of sunflower crops during late summer. | | | | and dairy products. Residues of five or |
| They evaluated the cost benefit ration | | | | more persistent toxic chemicals in a |
| for 4 culling scenarios involving (1) | | | | single food item are not unusual, with |
| variable annual cullus, not exceeding 2 | | | | the most commonly found POPs being the |
| million birds, with and without density | | | | pesticides DDT ( and its metabolites, |
| compensation (i.e. ,a positive | | | | such as DDE) and dieldrin. Estimated |
| density-dependent response) on adult | | | | daily doses of dieldrin alone exceed the |
| survival and (2) culls of 2 million | | | | US Environmental Protection Agency and |
| birds annually with and without density | | | | US Agency for Toxic Substances Disease |
| compensation .We constructed a red | | | | Control reference dose for children. |
| -winged blackbird population model | | | | Given the widespread occurrence of POPs |
| represented as an age-based matrix and | | | | in the food supply and the serious |
| calibrated to stable growth. We assumed | | | | health risks associated with even |
| a total population of 27 million birds | | | | extremely small levels of exposure, |
| on 1 April (week 1), representing the | | | | prevention of further food contamination |
| red-winged blackbird breeding population | | | | must be a national health policy |
| staging in eastern Southern Dakota and | | | | priority in every country. |
| migrating into North Dakota.Under each | | | | Implementation of the Stockholm |
| culling scenario, we reduced the stable | | | | Convention will prevent further |
| red-winged blackbird population (Equally | | | | accumulation of persistent toxic |
| for females and males) and project the | | | | chemicals in food. Early ratification |
| population through week 23 of the annual | | | | and rapid implementation of this treaty |
| cycle (2 Sep). We then evaluated the | | | | should be an urgent priority for all |
| associated costs of the management | | | | governments (Schafer et al 2002). |
| relative to potential sunflower crop | | | | Â |
| losses, assuming $0.07 in damage per | | | | 28. Netherland experiences |
| bird and 4% loss to other factors. | | | |          Traditionally, |
| Variable annual culls, likely the more | | | | pink-footed geese Anser Brachyrhynchus |
| biologically realistic model scenarios, | | | | wintering in Denmark, the Netherlands |
| yielded mean annual removals of 1 240 | | | | and Belgium have used the Danish sites |
| 560 (SE=12 328) birds with density | | | | only during mild winter, rapidly moving |
| compensation and 1 231 620 (SE=28 811) | | | | southwards in case of cold spells. Since |
| birds without density compensation,, | | | | the 1980s, an increasing number of geese |
| with cost benefit ratios of 1:2.3 and | | | | have remained on the Danish wintering |
| 1:3.6, respectively. Annual intrinsic | | | | grounds despite cold spells, foraging on |
| rates for the model population over | | | | pastures Because winter wheat |
| the 5 year period ranged from 1-4 to | | | | represented a reliable and profitable |
| 4.8%. Considering potential variability | | | | food source even in sever winter, the |
| in the effectiveness of the cull and | | | | recent change in Agricultural practice |
| the combination of direct and indirect | | | | has enhanced the development of a new |
| costs,we contend that the realized | | | | wintering strategy of pink-footed geese, |
| benefits to sunflower growers by lethal | | | | allowing a northward expansion of their |
| control of red-winged blackbiards via | | | | winter range. Potentially, this will |
| spring baiting , in combination with | | | | increase the crop damage conflict and |
| current nonlethal management efforts, | | | | may lead to further population growth ( |
| would likely be negligible (Blackwell et | | | | Therkidsen et al 2000). |
| al 2003). | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Enclosure trials near |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â The efficacy of | | | | Huron, CA in the San Joaquin Valley from |
| hydrolyzed casein (HC) and retail | | | | 12 to 23 January 1999 , determine the |
| products that contain HC in reducing | | | | efficacy of Flight Control TM (50% |
| deer damage to trees and shrubs was | | | | anthraquinone) and Mesurol R (75% |
| determined in a field experiments | | | | methiocarb) in preventing horned lark |
| conducted in USA during 2004-05. The | | | | damage to lettuce seedlings. Flight |
| results of the experiments indicate the | | | | control TM (FC) and Mesurol R were |
| suitability of HC as a deer repellent. | | | | evaluated as foliar sprays at |
| Technical grade HC completely eliminated | | | | application rates of 2.79 and 2.27 kg |
| browsing damage to evergreen shrubs | | | | ha-1, respectively. Horned lark damage |
| (Gaultheria shallon) and conifers (Thuja | | | | to lettuce seedlings treated with |
| plicata). Retail sources of HC were not | | | | anthraquinone was greater (p=0.015) than |
| as effective as the pure hydrolyzed | | | | for methiocarb R, 60 versus 20% , |
| protein (Kimball et al 2005). | | | | respectively, and seedlings in control |
| Â | | | | plots were 100% destroyed. While this |
| Â | | | | level of damage is probably unacceptable |
| 9. Blackbird damages | | | | to lettuce growers, it should be |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â The economic impact | | | | remembered that the enclosure situation |
| of blackbirds can be severe to rice | | | | caused an artificially high bird |
| producers in the United States. One | | | | pressure on the crop. Further studies in |
| approach to managing this damage is the | | | | open fields under a more normal bird |
| application of bird-deterrent chemical | | | | pressure are warranted ( York et al |
| to the crop. Previous pilot trials | | | | 2000). |
| suggested that caffeine offered | | | | Â |
| potential as a safe, economical bird | | | | 29. Ozone injury |
| repellent. In this study, cage feeding | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Incidence and |
| trials with female red -winged | | | | severity of visible foliar ozone injury |
| blackbirds and male brown headed | | | | on cutleaf coneflower (Rudbeckia |
| cowbirds confirmed that a treatment rate | | | | laciniata L.) and crown-bread (Verbesina |
| of 25000 ppm caffeine on rice seed | | | | Occidentalis Walt). Were determined .It |
| reduced consumption as much as 76% . | | | | is thus a matter of consideration that |
| Trials with mixed species blackbirds | | | | zone injury may harm vegetation harmed |
| flocks in a 0.2-ha flight pen resulted | | | | by browsing or even cutting. Ozone |
| in just 4% loss of caffine-treated rice | | | | injury was greatest on the lower leaves |
| compared to 43% loss of untreated rice. | | | | for both species sampled with over 95% |
| . Field trials of a 10 000 ppm caffeine | | | | of the injured leaves occurring on the |
| treatment in Louisiana revealed > 90% of | | | | lower 50% of the plant. This is the |
| caffeine-treated rice seed remained | | | | first report of foliar ozone injury on |
| unconsumed on days 2 and 3 of the study | | | | these plant species in situ, in the |
| whereas blackbirds consumed > 80% of the | | | | Park, illustrating the great variability |
| untreated seed. As a rice seed treatment | | | | in symptom expression with time, and |
| to deter blackbirds, caffeine appears to | | | | within and between populations ( |
| be effective, economical and | | | | Chappelka et al 2003). |
| environmentally safe, although | | | | Â |
| additional aquatic toxicity testing is | | | | 30. Protected arrears and humans |
| desirable. Improvements in formulation | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Knowledge of |
| will be needed to make the compound | | | | conflicts between people and protected |
| practical for general agricultural spray | | | | areas is required for the design of |
| applications and to extend the adherence | | | | sustainable conservation strategies for |
| of caffeine to rice seeds in field | | | | the management of most protected areas. |
| conditions ((Avery et al 2005). | | | | The study identifies the causes of |
| Â | | | | conflicts between local people and the |
| 10. Deer damage | | | | Benous Wildlife Conservation Area |
| A questionnaire was distributed to over | | | | (BWCA), which includes the Benous |
| 2500 farms to know damage caused by | | | | National Park, In northern Cameroon. |
| lowland deer to crops, trees and | | | | Informal interviews and questionnaires |
| vegetation. Results from the | | | | were administered to 114 households in |
| questionnaire showed that 69% (n=1192) | | | | three communities, and to 17 park staff |
| of responding farmers had deer on their | | | | and 7 professional hunting guides from |
| holdings and that Roe and Fallow were | | | | July -October 1997. Crop damage affected |
| the most frequently seen species. On | | | | 86% of the surveyed household, with 31% |
| those farms with deer present, cereals | | | | of crop income lost on average, and with |
| were the most commonly damaged crop | | | | the damage varying significantly between |
| (44%), but only 15% of these farmers | | | | communities. Elephants, baboons, patas |
| claimed that the annual cost of damage | | | | monkeys. Warthogs and green parrots |
| to cereals exceeded £500 each year for | | | | accounted for 97% of crop damage, with |
| the whole farm. Validation assessments | | | | the staple food maize and millet being |
| were based on two visits to assess deer | | | | most affected. Of the respondents 27% |
| damage to the crop, with a deer species | | | | experienced livestock depredation, with |
| density assessment during the March | | | | 18% of livestock income lost on |
| assessment and an assessment of grain | | | | average. The civet cat was the main |
| yield and quality during the August | | | | predator. The involvement of local |
| assessment. Respondents were generally | | | | people in illegal activities, their |
| accurate in the density and species of | | | | lack of access to natural resources, and |
| deer reported. The percentage of the | | | | damage by wildlife were identified as |
| farm suffering damage attributable to | | | | principal causes of conflicts. Local |
| deer was very variable, generally being | | | | people, park staff and professional |
| higher at the first assessment than the | | | | hunting guides had diverse and differing |
| second. The figures calculated for yield | | | | perceptions about the causes of the |
| loss were generally low, Farmers were | | | | conflicts and made various suggestions |
| poor at estimating the economic impact | | | | for reduction of wildlife damage |
| of deer damage when compared to | | | | including animal scaring and controlled |
| validation data, but a number of | | | | shooting. We conclude that, under |
| parameters may have changed in the two | | | | current wildlife policy, conflict |
| years between the questionnaire | | | | between people and BWCA Â (Bonous |
| distribution and validation, including | | | | Wildlife Conservation area) is difficult |
| changes in deer density, crop rotations, | | | | to resolve. To reduce conflicts and |
| and the marked drop in grain prices, | | | | promote sustainable conservation, we |
| which may account for some of the | | | | suggest co-management of wildlife |
| inaccuracies. There were no | | | | involving all stakeholders, |
| statistically significant relationships | | | | establishment of crop damage control |
| between deer damage assessments and | | | | teams, and promotion of tangible |
| yield loss, either for individual | | | | benefits to  local people. There may be |
| species or both species combined. The | | | | a requirement for site -specificity in |
| relationship between Roe deer damage at | | | | management strategies (Weladji et al |
| the harvest assessment and Roe deer | | | | 2003). |
| density was significant (Post et al, | | | | Â |
| 2001). | | | | 31. Low technology use to avoid damages |
| Wildlife managers must consider the | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â It is suggested |
| public's preferences for wildlife | | | | that an integrated, community-based, low |
| population levels when determining | | | | technological approach will be the most |
| management policies. 849 farmers, | | | | sustainable solution to this conflict ( |
| hunters and the general public of | | | | Osborn et al 2003). |
| Maryland. USA, were surveyed in 1996 to | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Blackbirds |
| determine their preferences for | | | | (lcteridae) annually damage US$5-8 |
| increasing, maintaining, or decreasing | | | | million of ripening sunflower in the |
| deer population numbers. Using a random | | | | northern Great Plains. Baiting |
| utility theoretic framework, the factors | | | | blackbirds with avicide-treated rice |
| that explain preferences such as | | | | during spring migration might reduce the |
| residential location, socioeconomic | | | | regional breeding populations. birds can |
| characteristics, landscape damage, | | | | be successfully baited with |
| agricultural yield loss and vehicle | | | | avicide-treated rice placed in corn |
| accidents were analyzed. Results | | | | stubble (Linz et al 2003). |
| suggested that the majority of people | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Plant debris |
| benefit from deer and want to keep deer | | | | accumulation is viewed as a key factor |
| population at current levels. Other | | | | determining small mammal abundance and |
| characteristics such as age, income, | | | | potential damage in low-till |
| education, and residential location have | | | | agricultural ((Stermer et al 2003) |
| minor or no impact on preferences. | | | | areas. |
| Property damage, crop loss, landscape | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â The projected total |
| damage, and car accidents appear to be | | | | value of crop yield losses due to |
| the biggest concerns ( Curtis et al | | | | wildlife damage for buffer zone villages |
| 2001). | | | | located in Garhwal Himalaya in about |
| Â | | | | Rs.5 38 620 (US$15 389). Besides food |
| 11. Sika deer population in Japan | | | | grain, horticultural crops i.e apple, |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Sika deer Cervus | | | | also suffered. |
| nippon population in eastern Hokkaido, | | | | |