Crop Damages by Wild Animals Global View Country Report and Reviews in 1-10 Sections

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Crop Damages by Wild Animals Global View Country Report and Reviews in 1-10 Sections

Crop Damage by Wild Animalssection i				Japan, increased rapidly during
general discussions				1990-1998 . This increase appeared to
G.M. Wani				have halted in 1999-2000, probably due
Ph.D ; D.V.M (Germany)				to increased hunting and nuisance
FN ISSGAPU, FN DAAD				control. The period of rapid increase
Director Extension Education / SAMETI				was associated with a disproportionately
Sher-e-Kashmir University of				rapid increase in compensation paid for
Agricultural Sciences and Technology of				deer damage to crops. We studied changes
Kashmir				in diet during 1990-2000, as reflected
Shalimar, Srinagar, 191121				by stable isotope ratios of C and N in
�				tooth collagen. We hypothesized that
�				isotope ratios would demonstrate dietary
�				shifts related to population levels and
A brief global review to asses the				or time, and that shifts in isotope
damage caused to cultivated crops by				ratios would be consistent with
wild animals around the world. The				increasing individual� consumption of
review was attempted in response to a				pasture grasses at higher population
recommendation of ICAR Regional				levels, delta 13C isotope ratios of
Committee No.1 held in Oct, 2007 at				tooth collagen in 3 year-old sika
Solan, H.p. presided over by Hon'ble				indicated a diet dominated by C3 plants
Director General, ICAR Dr. Mangala Rai				throughout the period, and that forage
inauguration was chaired by Hon'ble				species other than pasture grasses and
Agriculture Minister J&K, Jenab Ab. Aziz				dwarf bamboo Sasa nipponica ( the main
Zargar.				crop and woodland understory plants,�
� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �				respectively) were important elements.
� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �				There was a significant decline in the
� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �				delta 13C isotope ratio during�
� � � Author				1990-2000 in both males and females,
�				delta 15N values showed no trend with
� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �				time for males, but increased over time
� � � � � � � � � � � � � � �				in females. Indices of population
�				(Sightings per Unit Effort, SPUE) were
�				negatively correlated with female delta
�				13C, and positively correlated with
Published by:� Director State				female delta 15N, values indicating a
Agricultural Management and Extension				shift in diet over the period ,
Training Institute of Kashmir (SAMETI-K)				especially among females. This shift may
, SKUAST-K , Shalimar , Post Box: 461,				be related to population and/or offtake
G.P.O, Srinagar.				levels, in particular� the rapid
�				increase in female offtake for nuisance
�				control and hunting during the period.
� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �				The data are consistent with a relative
Publication No: SAMETI/Pub/3/1000				increase in pasture grass consumption
January, 2008				per individual at higher population
�				levels, however, other� explanations of
�				the data are equally plausible. Possible
�				dietary changes, and other factors,
P.O.Box: 461, GPO, Srinagar, E.Mail: � �				influencing the observed shift in
� � � � � � � Phone:� � � � � �				isotope ratios are discussed. Although
0194-2461317,0194-2463460,0194-2463459�				statistically significant, the magnitude
� � � � � � � � � Cell: � � � � � � �				of dietary shifts� nevertheless
09419095342� ;				appeared small, and did not provide
Residence:0194-2431508,2435741				evidence which would justify modifying
�				the current policy, of limiting crop
�				damage through managed population
�				reduction to about 25% of peak levels(
Introduction:				Halley et al 2006).
�				�
� � � � � � Wild animal-human conflicts				12.� White-tailed deer damages
have started since beginning of human				� � � � � � � � � White-tailed deer
era from Adam and Eve. This conflict of				(Odocoileus virginianus) may cause more
wilderness made man to hide in caves and				damage than any other species of
he was called as "Cave man". Slowly,				wildlife. These damages include crop
with his advancement it is he who				loss, automobile and aviation
invented Axe and other weapon in stone				collisions, disease transmission,
and iron ages to frighten the wild				environmental degradation, and
animals, initially. Later on he hunted				destruction of ornamental� plantings.
them to save himself. This feeling of				One practical method of controlling deer
uncertainty and fear of wild animals and				damage is the use of exclusionary
wilderness reduced with the invention of				fences. The relatively high cost of
fire. He made sharp weapons of bones and				labor and materials required to build
iron. These initial weapons were the				effective fences has limited most
beginning of this conflict, Animal human				applications to the protection of
conflict.				orchards, vegetable farms, other high
Thirty thousand years ago, the human				-value resources, and mitigation of
population rose to 6 million. They were				human health and safety risks.
still hunters. With the invention of				Improvements in fence technology
fire, he set fire a vast majority of				resulting in less expensive, yet
sanctuaries, which scared wild life and				effective fence have expanded the use of
they migrated from his neighborhood.				fence to manage damage caused by deer.
Many forests, hills and difficult				Fence typically installed to manage
terrains were still beyond the reach of				white-tailed deer damage include wire or
man three thousand years before,				plastic mesh, electrified high-tensile
although human population has increased				steel wire, and electrified polytape or
to 60 million. Man has already started				polyrope fence. They reviewed the
primitive agriculture. He had made his				scientific literature on fencing to
terrains and wild life scared by him				determine which fence designs would be
left his close habitats and searched for				the most effective for excluding deer in
fresh abodes. Man by now had lust for				a variety of situations (VerCauteren et
fur, horns, ornaments and other forest				al 2006).
resources. He invented many means to				� � � � � � � � � The installation of
frighten whole wild life. He became a				fences to protect agricultural products,
"Danger "not only for wild animals but				natural resources, or other areas from
for his own species, environment and				deer (Odocoileus spp.) can be expensive
eco-biodiversity.				and potential benefits of fencing are
Three hundred years ago he				difficult to quantify. A rational method
industrialized crop production and				is needed to help evaluate whether
produced enough food, for nearly 600				fencing can be cost effective and which
million people. This continued and from				fence designs will be optimal for
30 year now he is feeding 6000 million				particular applications. They describe
people. Today we have a global food				an interactive, dynamic simulation model
security for 7.5 billion. Human food				that conducts economic analyses and
security gains resulted in reduction of				predicts economic benefit associated
all other wild species, thus, the origin				with fences for crops relative to area
of wild- life- human conflict is the				and perimeter of protected plot, value
lust of man for more food, more luxury				of crop, percentage of crop damaged by
or sometimes fun for hunting or fur.				deer annually prior to fencing, efficacy
This reduced wild life reserves and now				of fence, and costs of fence materials
a open conflict came into existence.				and labor. Users of the model can easily
Many man-wild life conflicts have been				adjust these variables to fit their
reported from Gir forests of Gujarat,				individual situations and needs. By
Rajaji National Park in UP and many				running a series of simulations, model
other states where forest lands became				users can answer questions related
cultivable lands. Elephants, wild boars,				directly to fence efficacy and
monkeys, squirrels, deer , birds like				cost-effectiveness (VerCauteren K et al
crows, parakeets, wild dogs, jackals,				2006).
gaur, sambur, langure, fowls, pea cocks,				�
neilgai, Hippos, biats, blackbirds,				13. Corn damage by wild life
rodents, wild pigs, feral species,				� � � � � � � � � Corn damages in USA
primates, beetles, foxes, pigeons, feral				were estimated at 6.6 per hac due to
hogs and a variety of other species				wild life. The white tailed deer was the
damage crops. The carnivores even attack				wild animal responsible for loss. The
human too. These attacks are for search				average hacters owned by farmers were
of food or their loss of habitat. Many				125 out of which 55 hectares were sown
such accidents came to be known in Jammu				corn. (Tzilkowsi et al 2002).
and Kashmir. The bear leopod and other				�
wild animals are reducing in number.				14. � Deer Damage
Their habitats used by human.				� � � � � � � � � Deer (Odocoileus
The human causalities are due to				spp.) can cause substantial damage to
carnivorous species, but herbivores				agricultural crops, resulting in
inflict economic and human losses too.				economic losses for producers. They
The crop damages by wild life has been				developed a deer activated bio-acoustic
the new threat to agricultural				frightening device to reduce
productivity throughout the world. This				white-tailed deer (O, virginianus)
also concerns us in Asia and India. This				damage in agricultural fields. The
review is aimed to find out:				device considered of an infrared
1.� � � � � � Extent of damage to				detection system that activated an audio
crops.				component which broadcast recorded
2.� � � � � � Nature of crop damage				distress and alarm calls of deer. They
3.� � � � � � Ways and means to prevent				tested the device against unprotected
these losses.				controls in cornfields during the
4.� � � � � � A strategic planning to				silking-tasseling stage of growth in
drive a line between wildlife				July 2001. The device was not effective
conservation and farm economics				in reducing damage: track-count indices
especially in India.				(F1,4=0.02), corn yield
�				(F1,9=1.27,P=0.289), and estimated
Executive Abstracts and Strategic				damage levels (F1,10=0.87, P=0.374) did
elementaries: [EASE]				not differ between experimental and
1.� � � � Importance				control fields. The size
� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �				(F2,26=1,00,P=0.380), location
Species causing crop damages ranges from				(F2,25=0.39,P=0.684), and percent
elephant's wild birds, monkeys,				overlap (F2,25=0.20,P=0.818) of
squirrels, deer, parakeet, wild dogs,				use-areas of radiomarked female deer did
foxes, deer and many others like				not differ between during and after
Neilgai. On an average this damage to				treatment periods. They concluded that
crops by wild animals amounts to U$ 961				the deer-activated bio-acoustic device
per hectare. It is much more than an				was not effective in protecting
Indian Farmer earns from a hacter				cornfields in this study; however, the
annually. Therefore, by these estimates,				device may be more effective in small
the damages are spectacular and				areas such as gardens or for high value
economically important.				crops that do not grow tall enough to
2.� � � � � � Human Elephant conflicts				offer protective cover (Gilsdorf et al
(HEC):				2004).
� � � � � � � � � i) Economic Losses:				� � � � � � � � � White -tailed deer
� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �				(Odocoileus virginianus) cause millions
Among elephants crop raiding is common.				of dollars of damage to agricultural
The crops near their home ranges are				crops annually . They tested the
damaged more. Elephants damaging crops				effectiveness of propane exploders and
had twice big ranges than those who did				Electronic Guards (Pocatello Supply
not damage the crops. Thus, more				Depot, Pocatello, Id). For reducing deer
proximity of the crops near their ranges				damage in corn fields during the
are prone to crops damages. Train				silking-tasseling stage of growth.
accidents instigate elephants more to				Track-count indices (F2,7=0.70,P=0.532),
crop or human damages. Indonesia saw				corn yield (F2,6=0.14, P=0.873), and
more frequent raids of elephants on				estimated damage levels (F2, 12=1,45
crops. Human elephant conflict (HEC) is				P=0.272) did not differ between
frequent and poses serious challenges in				experimental and control fields. The
Africa. Both male groups and family				size (F2,11=0.08,P =0.924), Location�
group attacks have been observed. HEC				(F2,9=0.30, P=0.750), and percent
losses in West Bengal were worth 3.2				overlap (F2,9=0.46, P=0.644) of use
croses of Rupees. This damage occurred				-areas of radiomarked female deer in the
in 3368sq kms.radius. The numerical				vicinity of experimental fields did not
number of elephants was 62 only. Assam				differ� among before, during and after
observes damages to the woodcutters by				18 day treatment periods. In a related
elephants Asian wild Elephants raid and				study, we placed propane exploders in
damage crops in herds of 10-13				cornfields within use-areas of 12
individuals or big herds comprising				radiomarked female deer. The deer did
50-74 elephants. In Darjeeling district				not react appreciably to the devices;
alone over an area of 200 kms. East to				the size (F2, 17=0.08, P=0.921),
west, in last two decades 277 houses				location (F2,22=1.37, P=0.275), and
were demolished by elephants, killing 66				percent overlap (f2,10=0.47, P=0.636) of
people in 5 districts. As a result of				deer use areas did not differ among
this conflict 23 elephants lost their				before, during, and after 14 day
lives. In 2001, economic loss of the				treatment periods. They conclude that
order of US fifty thousand dollars was				propane exploders and Electronic Guards
estimated to be inflicted by elephants.				have limited potential for reducing deer
This scenario necessitates comprehensive				damage to corn at the silking-tasseling
measures to be taken to lessen these				stage (Glisdorf et al 2004l.
damage. The review of the measures,				�
around the world suggest following few				� � � � � � � � � A welfare measure for
studies to be undertaken and resultant				wildlife damage to Ontario (Canada)
measures to be applied to lessen these				field crop producers during the 1998
damages.ii)� � � � Mitigation of				was. The welfare measure presented in
losses:				this study provides a more accurate
� � � � � � � � � Methods developed and				picture of losses from wildlife damage
used to mitigate crop damages by				to agricultural. Other damage estimates
elephants consisted of frightening of				based on yield loss overstate the damage
animals by drum beating, firegracks or				since benefits from wildlife are netted
even air gun fires. Guarding the crops				out. Results for the Ontario field crop
by fences or even using electric fencing				producers indicate that the magnitude of
or raising poles and wiring may be				the difference between the value of the
effective. Chemical based deterrents,				yield loss and the welfare measure of
and electric fencing have been found to				damage is approximately 50%. This
reduce crop damages. High voltage				difference indicates that most farmers
electric fencing using energizers in				were willing to tolerate the wildlife
west have prevented wild animals				damage they experienced (Heigh et al
damaging crop but this preposition may				2001).
not be applicable in areas where even				�
habitations do not have access to				15. Grapevine damages
electricity. However, this method may				� � � � � � � � � In field trials in
act as a temporary boundary separating				1999-2000 in Gundla Pochampally, Andhra
wild and domestic habitats. This could				Pradesh, India , the incidence of damage
prevent intrusions from sly vatic to				to green grapevines was studied. Visits
domestic foci. Guarding fields, digging				to the vines by bats begain around 45
trenches, modifying cropping patterns				minutes after sunset and foraging
have a possibility of reducing man				continued until 1 hour� before sunrise.
elephant conflicts or Human elephant				Damage occurred to ripe fruit only, and
conflicts. A 30% open space between two				increased around harvesting time,
habitats may help to avoid HEC. This				percentage damage ranged from 0 to 100%
means a distance to be maintained				(Bhargavi et al, 2001).
between cropping fields and elephant				�
habitates. A proper investigation on				16. � � Hippo damage
these lines is needed. A grid based				� � � � � � � � � The introduction to
geographical information system (GIS)				the paper described the various
with a 25Km2 resolution may help to have				ecological effects known to result from
cost effective data source to analyze				grazing, movement along paths, and
these situations. There is urgent need				wallowing by the common hippo.
of identifying spatial predictors of				Hippopotamus amphibious. The study
HEC. On the basis of this study one can				reported was carried out at Kainji Lake
suggest or plan mitigation strategies,				National Park., Nigeria, during � the
early warnings of attacks, use of				dry season periods {of 1991 and 1992} .
barriers and deterrents. The utility of				The method adopted by Agnew, A.D.Q.
the methods could be assessed for land				(East African Wildlife Journal (1966) 4,
use and livelihood strategies to limit				38-46) was used to assess hippo foraging
HEC.				footprints at three hippo pool sites. A
�				total of 32 footpaths were enumerated
3.� � � � � � Dear-Nilgai Damages.				out of which 18 were located at Kaii
� � � � � � � � � A survey of 2500				hippo pool site, while the frequency of
farms in UK revealed that 69% (n=192)				utilization of paths was also higher for
cereal crops were damaged by deer. This				this site relative to those in other
damage costed £500 per annum per farm.				area. The upstream-downstream trend in
Damages varied with deer density. In USA				hippo occupancy of dry � season water
too deer damages comprised of crop loss,				pools could expose the hippo to crop
landscape damages, car accidents and				damage conflicts at the peripheral
property damages. Nilgai damages				areas.
alongwith deer damages are common in				�
India too. Tree cover of Acacia in the				17.� Hygo-Japan-mammal crop damages
area is generally used as shelter by				�
Nilgai. We have encountered huge crop				� � � � � � � � � Mammals inhabiting �
damage in Mathura (CIRG) and nearby area				Hyogo consist of seven orders, 17
by Nilgai visits. Grazing and browsing				families and about 40 species. Except
of Nilgai inflict losses on farms. This				for Lagomorpha and� Artiodactyla, the
is regarded as a mammalian crop threat				remaining five orders among them include
by the farmers. This behaviour of their				species which need some protection and
inflict ozone injury to the young				they total about 55% of all species
sapling, so precious for the growth of				excluding extinct, introduced and feral
trees in Indian semi-arid farms.				species. Ecological information in Hyogo
�				prefecture has been accumulated in few
� � � � � � � � � Corn damages by deer				protection-required species there is no
in USA amounts to 6.6.% per hectare. In				recent information of spatial
an area where a farmer owned 125 hectare				distribution on Oriental water-shrew,
on an average 55 hectares were used to				Japanese noctule-bat and Japanese
sow corn. There is a 6.6% loss of the				dormouse; and little information on
product which is a huge economic loss.				Japanese shrew, Japanese horse-shoe bat,
Similar damages by deer in Ontario,				Japanese large -footed bat. Schreiber's
Canada, Portugal, Japan, South America				bent-winged bat, Japanese tube-nosed
and other parts of the world have been				bat, common parti-colored bat, Japanese
reviewed. In Virginia too a study				squirrel, Japanese small
involving 1506 agricultural producer				flying-squirrel, Japanese giant
farmers revealed 58% of them				flying-squirrel, smith's vole harvest
experiencing deer damages. Ways and				mouse and Japanese badger. Damage and
means to prevent such attacks on crops				population managements is also necessary
have been reviewed. Most of the possible				in sika deer and Japanese wild boar, to
measures to be adopted are similar to				reduce their crop--damaging, and
these described for elephants (HEC).				comprehensive management in Japanese
�				black bear, an endangered local
4.� � � Other Mammal and bird damages				population, to prevent human-bear fatal
�				accident. Habitat alteration due to
� � � � � � � � � Monkey damages maize,				human activities, however, has affected
sweet potato and other crops. It is				the population sizes and spatial
suggested to reduce or change cropping				distribution of all these, mammals in
pattern or alternating with				Hyogo. Habitat management has priority
non-agricultural activities near				over damage. Fundamental and applied
location of monkey habitats. Various				scientific studies and understanding of
methods are reviewed. Bat damage, Hygo				ecology and wildlife management science
crop damages in Japan, Grape wine				needs promotion by citizens (Mitani M
damages by bats in Andra Pradesh, India				2000).
have been studied. Crop economic loss				�
assessment has been reviewed in these				18. Monkey damage
pages. Clover rather than grass can				�
reduce wild mammal damages. Alley				� � � � � � � � � Forty-seven property
cropping of black walnuts helped to save				owners in Entebbe, Uganda were
soyabean and maize crop damages.				questioned about vervet monkey
Pesticide damages wildlife and minimize				activities on their property. The
their attacks, enclosures and other				objective was to investigate the
electric fencing help to avoid such				interactions between humans and vervet
damage. Can one use harmful means to				monkeys in an agricultural area adjacent
save crops, need a suitable strategy to				to a forest zone. Other studies have
preserve ecology and biodiversity. Both				reported that farms located within 300 m
crops and wild animals need security and				of a forested boundary probably incur
conservation. A management strategy is				the greatest risk of crop-raiding. Two
needed to safeguard human and wildlife				other factors that may influence
equally. � A policy framework is				susceptibility to vervet crop-raiding
envisaged.				were also examined: the types of crops
�				grown and the types of direct preventive
� � � � � � � � � Blackbird crop damage				measures used. The effect of these two
in USA amounts to 5-8 million dollars. A				factors on vervet crop-raiding is not
considerable sum of crores of rupees				straight forward. However, the distance
have been estimated to be damages in the				a property is located from the forest
form of crop, human and property losses				edge is an important factor influencing
by wild animals, birds and other rodents				vervet crop raiding. Surveyed � gardens
in India. Many measures to reduce these				200 m from the� forest edge received
losses are needed and have been				significantly less crop -raiding than
reviewed.				farms located� 100 or 50m (P=0.040,<
�				alpha=0.05). In this study, 8 out of 13
�				farmers (61.5%) said that maize, sweet
�				potato, or both, were most likely to be
�				damaged by the vervets. Other crops
�				singled out by the farmers are receiving
Review				damage by the vervets were bananas,
1. Wild animals damaging crops				mangoes, groundnuts and yam. They
To elephants wild boar, porcupine, rheus				suggest that the development of
macaque (Macaca mulatta), hoary-bellied				non-agricultural� activities on land
squirrel, barking deer (Muntiacus				directly adjacent to forested areas may
muntjak), red-breasted parakeet				reduce vervet crop -raiding by deterring
(Psittacula alexandri), and wild dog are				vervets from traveling greater distances
wild animals damaging crops.				from the forest edge due to increased
Methods developed and being used to				obstacles or risks � (Saj et al 2001).
mitigate man-wildlife conflict include,				�
frightening the animals; guarding the				19. Bait damage
crops; and using some sort of scarecrow				� � � � � � � � � The longevity of zinc
and traps (Miah et al 2001).				phosphide (ZP) on whole wheat bait � was
Accurate estimation of crop damage by				determined at the end of the "dry" and
wildlife (raccoons, white-tailed deer,				"wet" seasons, � is Western Australia..
and coyotes) often requires				While the total rainfall during the two
labour-intensive sampling procedure.				trials was 74 mm and 155mm, substantial
Variable area transect (VAT) sampling				loss of ZP was recorded only after
has been identified as a potential				significant rainfall events.
labour-saving alternative to quadrat				Irrespective of season, the loss of ZP
sampling ( Engerman et al 2002).				from bait applied in bait stations was
�				minimal. The maximum recorded loss was
2. Wild life Human conflicts				17% and this occurred after� 21 days'
Agricultural landowners suffer in the				exposure during the wet season where the
form of damage to crops, livestock, and				bait stations were placed in-crop.
other property. Some wildlife agencies				Nevertheless, regardless of the
maintained abatement and compensation				application method, sufficient ZP always
programmes. A model of deer-inflicted				remained on the wheat bait.
crop damage used to facilitate agency				Theoretically � it was lethal to rats
decisions regarding deer densities and				for at least 8-14 days (Twigg et al., �
distribution, abatement use, and to				2001).
forecast compensation. The model is				20.Venezuela experience:
applied to field-level compensation				� � � � � � � � � In Venezuela, lethal
claims in Wisconsin, USA. The results				control of wintering Dickcissels (Spiza
are consistent with theory, ( Yoder J,				Americana) is considered a threat to the
2002).				species survival. To help farmers
�				protect their rice and sorghum crops
3.� Crop Economic loss due to wild life				from by Dickcissels and to minimize the
� � � � � � � � � People's perceptions				killing of large numbers of these birds,
were discerned through participatory				alternative non-lethal crop protection
discussions covering 419 households				measures are needed. To that end, the
distributed in 10 villages in the buffer				responses of captive Dickcissels to
zone. Traditional uncodified rights of				three bird-repellent chemicals
local people were substantially reduced				(anthraquinone,methyl anthranilate and
through policy interventions set in				methiocarb) applied to rice seed were
since 1860s. Local people as well as				evaluated. In one-cup feeding trials,
tourists have been excluded from the				treatments of methiocarb (0.05% g/g,
core zone covering an area of 625 km2				applied as Mesurol 75%� wettable
since 1982. Deterioration of rural				powder) and anthraquinone (0.5%, applied
economy due to damage to crop and				as Flight Control) reduced consumption
livestock by wildlife and, termination				of rice by 70% relative to pretreatment
of opportunities of income from wild				consumption. Other anthraquinone
medicinal plant resources and tourism in				treatments (0.05,0.1%) and methyl
the core zone were the key negative				authranilate (0.05%) were inrffective.
impacts of conservation policy felt by				In two -cup trials, with untreated
more than 90% of respondents. Mean				millet as the alternative food,
annual economic loss per household was				consumption of rice treated with 0.05
estimated as Rs.1285, Rs. 1195 and				and 0.1%� anthraquinone was reduced by
Rs.156 due to damage caused by wildlife				90% relative to pretreatment levels.
to food crops, fruit trees and beehives,				Overall, Dickcissels responded to the
respectively, Rs. 1587� due to ban on				repellents similarly to the red-winged
collection of wild medicinal plants for				blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus). Because
marketing and Rs.7904 due to ban on				Flight Control has been used
tourism in the core zone. The Reserve				successfully to reduce blackbird use of
authority granted compensation for				rice fields in the USA, the prospect is
livestock killed by wildlife but it was				good for successful reduction of damage
hardly 5% of the market value of killed				to repening rice by Dickcissels in
livestock as assessed by the people.				Venezuela, particularly if repellent use
People did not appreciate much the				is coupled with the establishment of
present benefits from the reserve				alternative feeding sites ( Avery et al
management in the form of wages for				2001). Deer selected carrots over all
carrying out afforestation work, partial				green manure crops.
compensation for livestock depredation				�
and availability of solar power devices,				21. Nilgai damages in India
wool, and spinning devices.				� � � � � � � � � � Crop-damage by
Approximately 95% respondents identified				nilgai has been widely reported from
empowerment of local people in respect				India. � Are give Nilgai is for
of realizing income from timber from				increasing in this region. Lack of
dead/diseased trees in community				natural predators, deforestation
forests, income from medicinal plants in				overgrazing and the protection of these
buffer zone and opening of the core zone				animals from Hindu communities are
for tourism as potential development				reasons for their overpopulation. Tree
options. Improvement in rural economy,				cover of Acacia are generally used by
the prime concern of local people, has				nilgai as a day time shelter but not
not received as much attention as legal				food, � therefore it goes for
enforcement of protection by the reserve				crop-raiding in the late evening and at
management. There is a need for				night, jumping across 6-7 feet high
developing policies and management				stone wall, barbed fencing and fences of
actions that serve the economic				dead or live thorny plant material and
interests of local people together with				any other fencing/barrier made to
enhancement of environment conservation				protect the crop-. Due to habit of both
goal (Maikhuri et al 2001).				grazing as well as browsing they devore
�				every kind of farm species (both rabi
4.� Crop selection:				and kharif crops). It has been observed
Damage was less (34%) in experimental				that eating less but destroying more by
carrot as multiple crop than� carrots				trampling and causing damage are
as only crop planted (62% damage).				therefore regarded as serious mammalian
Staggered plantings of canola, which				crop pest and farmers wants to get ride
continuously produced flowers, was the				of this unconventional pest. The farmers
most effective lure crop of the green				chase them away by just following them
manure crops we tested. Carrot producers				by making loud sound by crackers or air
should use electric fences or 2.4-m				gun fires, following through tractors,
woven wire fences, perhaps combined with				empty tin or dried pumpkin filled with
staggered canola plantings, to reduce				small stones and connected with strings.
carrot depredations ( Schwab et al				Technically, carrots(enclosures),
2001).				trenching or power fencing are suggested
� � � � � � � � � The colver, rather				to mitigate the crop damage. Secondly,
than fertilized grass, is more effective				animals could be translocated to
cover crop on AFAs, against damage by				wildlife sanctuaries from the sites they
migratory geese. The sward should be				seen overcrowded or severe crop raiding
managed to encourage clover growth,				problems (Goyal et al 2000).
which would probably involve frequent				�
cutting but no fertilizer. Further				22.� Pesticides and wildlife
research is needed on clover				A range of monitoring activities has
replenishment rate over the winter				shown impacts of anticholinesterase
season and possible benefits of clover				pesticides on UK wildlife, and continued
leys to other wild life (McKay et al				risks are evident from laboratory and
2001). Alley cropping of black walnuts				field experiments, together with the
and percent with maize and soyabean				scale of use in the field. Along with
rotations may avoid will animal damages.				other broad spectrum insecticides, many
Tree -crop ratio of 1:10 may help(				organophosphates have adverse direct
Godsey, 2000).				effects on non-target arthropods in
�				farmland, and so are likely to
5.� Elephan- human conflicts:				contribute towards indirect effects of
Conflicts between elephants (Elephas				pesticides on farmland biodiversity. The
maximus) and human occur in Rajaji				anticholinesterase insecticides have
National Park (RNP), Uttar Pradesh, one				both lethal and sublethal effects on
of eleven reserves designated in India,				aquatic wildlife, however the history of
to conserve Asian elephants.				recent incidents of damage to river
Elephant-human. The conflicts in RNP				ecology following the wider use of
from 1996 to 1999 were studied, and all				synthetic pyrethroid sheep dips,
human and elephant deaths or injuries				illustrates the need to consider the
caused by conflict were recorded. The				implications of changes in the use of
impact of human colonies on elephant				alternative products when reviewing
movement was studied in 18 villages				these insecticides ( Burn 2000).
along 17 km of the sourthern boundary of				�
the study site and 4 village in the				� � � � � � � � � The use of
Chilla-Motichur corridor. Three male and				anthraguinone-based flight control and
four female elephants were radio tracked				methyl anthranilate-based non toxic
for 1-2 years. Primary conflicts				avian foraging repellent we used to
included crop raiding, competition				avoid crop damage by sandhill cranes.
between humans and elephants for				Thought both repellents were effective
vegetation, and elephant mortality due				at deterring cranes from treated corn,
to train accidents. Adult males that				neither has been tested on corn under
raided crops had home ranges twice as				field conditions. (Blackwell et al
large as adult males that did not raid				2001).
crops. Elephants only damaged crop of				� � � � � � � � � Oak seedlings were
fields that occurred within their home				scientifically raised. Seedling
ranges. Field trails of chemical based				mortality and wild life browse damages
deterrents and electric fencing should				were minimal when certain herbicide
be tried to reduce crop damage. Train				mixture was used. Biologically and
speeds need to be reduced to prevent				aesthetically, the procedure was
accidental elephant mortality (Williams				extremely successful (Ezell et al 1999).
et al 2001).				� � � � � � � � � Pre-commercially
�				thinned (forests are less prone to moose
Wild Elephant damages:				damage (McLaren et al, 2000).
� � � � � � � � � A rapid village and				�
field assessments, data survey showed.				23.� Pesticide use in conflicts
Elephants raided crops at a rate of 0.53				� � � � � � � � � Pesticides can cause
elephants per day in Indonesia. The				damage to man and beneficial organism.
frequency of crop raiding was related to				Some sub-lethal effects of pesticides
vegetation type along the park border,				were studied in birds with a view to
the size and presence of rivers, and the				identifying� characteristic biochemical
distance to the park's Elephant Training				responses that may be useful for the
Centre (ETC), which houses about 150				monitoring of exposure to sub-lethal
captive elephants. Wild elephants				levels in the field. Pesticides were
damaged at least 450000� m2 of maize,				used; demeton-S-methyl,
rice, cassava, beans and other annual				(DSM),chlorpyriphos, chlorfenviphos,
crops, and close to 900 coconut, banana				triazophos, pirimicarb, methiocarb and
and other perennial trees in the area				permethrin. Blood was collected before
surveyed. Elephants killed or injured 24				dosing, and 2,6,24,48 and 72 hours after
.Villagers try to reduce elephant damage				the treatment from the brachial vein of
by guarding fields, digging trenches				birds. Enzyme, activities were assayed
between the park and their fields, and				in the plasma or serum samples obtained.
modifying their cropping patterns.				The assays used were GOT,MHD, GDH,
Elephants-human conflict decreases the				SDH,GAMMA GT and ChE. The results showed
probability of support from local people				an increase in plasma and serum GOT and
for conservation efforts. The approaches				gamma-GT levels were found in all
are suggested consist of elephant				animals treated with the previous
trenches, electric fences, external				pesticides. The level of ChE increased
support to affected villages, and				in birds after treatment with
compensation to villagers for any damage				permethrin. It was concluded that the
caused (Nyhus et al 2000).				pesticides cause structural and
� � � � � � � � � This study explores				functional changes in the liver and
land use conflict in south east Kajiado				also, the measurement of the previous
District, Kenya. The results of				parameter activities may be useful for
household surveys conducted with farmers				assessing exposure and sub-lethal
and herders in 1977 and 1996 to examine				effects of pesticides on the wildlife
changes in land management strategies				(Dahamna et al 2004).
are compared. The conflict reflects				�
ongoing competition over access to				�
scarce land and water resources between				24. IPM and crop losses
herding, farming and wildlife are the				� � � � � � � � � The queensland sugar,
reason of damage of crops. This				industry has recently implemented a
man-animal conflict needs understanding				comprehensive integrated pest management
the conditions that have created the				(IPM) system to minimize crop losses
present conflicts (Compbell et al 2000).				from two antive rodent species, Rattus
It is, therefore, suggested that 30%				sordidus (canefield rat) and Melomy
open space be used as a basic division				burtoni (climbing rat). These species
for stratifying thickets into low -use				inflicted approximately $25M of damage
and high-use categories for deer density				in a major outbreak in the� 1999-2000
estimation. The proportions of each type				seasons. Both of these rodents are
could be derived from grid-square				listed as common wildlife under the
measurements of aerial photographs				schedules of the queensland nature
(Latham J 2000).				Conservation (Wildlife) Regulation 1994.
�				The IPM programme is based on
�				understanding the ecology and biology of
Human elephant conflict				each species. It incorporates a
� � � � � � � � � Human-elephant				large-scale monitoring programme aimed
conflict (HEC) in Africa occurs wherever				at providing early warning of imminent
these two species coincide, and poses				rodent build up to avert major
serious challenges to wild life				outbreaks. The industry has also�
managers, local communities and				developed a memorandum of understanding
elephants alike. Mitigation requires a				with Queensland State Government, which
details understanding of underlying				delivers on the industry's pest
patterns and processes. Although				management needs, while providing an
temporal patterns of HEC are relatively				improved system of accountability for
predictable, spatial variation has shown				the taking of two of Queenslands native
few universal trends, making it				wildlife species. The consensus reached
difficult to predict where conflict will				between the cooperating parties (The
take place. Crop raiding was further				Bureau of sugar Experiment Stations,
subdivided into incidents involving only				CANEGROWERS, regionally-based Cane
male elephants or family groups. A				Productivity Services, and the outcomes
relatively fine-resolution, systematic,				can be negotiated between rural industry
grid -based method was used to assign				and environmental interests (Hunt et al
the locations of conflict incidents, and				2004)� .
spatial relations with underlying				� � � � � � � � � In Areas around Lake
variables were explored using				Mburo National Park ,large wild animals
correlation analysis and logistic				wander in close proximity to human
regression. Crop raiding was clustered				settlement . This poses serious conflict
into distinct conflict zones. Both				in terms of crop damage. The integration
occurrence and intensity could be				of conservation with other land uses is
predicted on the basis of the area under				difficult where densely settled
cultivation and, for male elephant				agricultural land surrounds a protected
groups, proximity to major settlement.				area potentially containing problem
Conversely, incidents human injury and				animals, as is the case for several
death were less predictable but were				parks in Africa and Asia. The intensity
correlated with proximity to roads. A				of crop raiding was quantified through
grid-based geographical information				the use of random crop quadrants/plots
system (GIS) with a 25km2 resolution				and area estimation techniques in a
utilizing cost-effective data source,				portion of raided fields. The animal
combined with simple statistical�				species concerned were documented from
tools, was capable of identifying				observations, footprints and any other
spatial predictors of HEC, At finer				marks left behind. Three variables were
resolutions spatial autocorrelation				tested as predictors of damage; human
compromised the analyses. Synthesis and				population density, distance from the
application. These results suggest that				park boundary and season. In this study
spatial correlates of HEC can be				data is presented regarding crop loss in
identified, regardless of the sex of the				the different seasons of the year,
elephants involved. Moreover, the method				analysis of crop damage variation and
described here is fully transferable to				animal species involved in crop loss. A
other sites for comparative analysis of				diverse assemblage of animals foraged on
HEC. Using these results to map				subsistence crops and analysis of crop
vulnerability will enable the				damage revealed significant crop
development and deployment of				depreciation by wildlife( Kagoro et al
appropriate conflict mitigation				2004).
strategies, such as guarding, early				�
warning systems, barriers and				�
deterrents. The utility of such methods				�
and their strategic deployment should be				25.� Hawai Pest
assessed alongside alternative land-use				� � � � � � � � � The apple snail,
and livelihood strategies that limit				P.canaliculata, is an aquatic freshwater
cultivation within the elephant range				snail native to South America,
(Sitati et al 2003).				Originally imported to Hawai'i as pets
� � � � � � � � � Human elephant				for the aquarium trade, they were soon
conflicts (HEC) in west Bengal was an				introduced into wetland plots known as
economic loss worth 3.2 crores. This				"lo's" where taro (Colocasia esculenta),
much damage occurred in 3368 sq km				an economically and culturally
radius inhibiting 62 elephants (Singh et				significant crop, is grown. Some
al 2002)				individuals reasoned that the snails,
�				being edible, could be harvested as
6. � � Kerala Survey				food, and that raising the snails along
Crop damage by wild animals in Kerala,				with the taro in the "Io's" would
India, was studied from 1993 to 1996.				provide income supplemental to the taro
Data were collected from the offices of				harvest with minimum additional input.
the Kerala Forest Department, field				This introduction of snails into the
survey and from the intensive study area				taro "lo'i" however, proved to be a
at Marayur, Idukki District. Forty-five				disaster. Farmers failed to take into
species of crops were destroyed by wild				account the voracity , reproductive
animals in Kerala, the species commonly				potential, and rapid growth of the
destroyed by wild animals were paddy,				snails. Because of the ideal conditions
coconut plam , plantains , cassava ,				in the taro "lo'i", the snails�
arecanut, coffee, oil plam , pepper ,				multiplied rapidly and fed heavily on
jack tree, mulberry and manago. The main				the taro shoots and corns in many cases,
animals involved in crop damage were				destroying a complete crop before
elephant (Elephas maximus), gaur (Bos				harvest time. Hindisight has shown that
gaurus),sambar (Cervus unicolor), wild				the snails are dissipated via the
boar (Sus scrofa), bonnet macaque				irrigation system throughout the "lo'i"
(Macaca radiate), common langur				and then spread to the surrounding
(Presbytis entellus), blacknaped hare				wetland areas. Large breeding
(Lepus nigricollis) and pea fowl (Pavo				populations are now established in
cristatus). Among these, elephants and�				wetland areas on the islands of Hawai'e,
wild board gave maximum damage . Of the				O'ahu, Kaua'I, and Maui. Some of� these
total compensation claimed by the				wetlands are wildlife preserves with
farmers, only 8.2% was sanctioned by the				state and federal mandates that restrict
Kerala Forest Department. The highest				the potential methods of eradication.
crop damage (30%) was recorded from the				Background information is provided on
forest ranges coming under the Northern				both P.canaliculata and taro to fully
Circle: pinapple (47%) , sweet potato				explain the challenges and opportunities
(47%), tapioca (42%), alocasia (39%) ,				that this situation presents (Tamaru et
beans (25%) and plantains (23%) recorded				al 2006).
highest percentage of damage. In the				�
intensive study area at Marayur, 28				26.� Chemical repellents
species of crops were damaged and				� � � � � � � � � Chemical feeding
highest damage was during the summer				repellents applied to ripening sunflower
months. At maximum damage was due to				might help reduce blackbird (lcteridae)
elephant (72%) followed by gaur (62%) ,				damage, which is a chronic agricultural
sambar (17%) and wild boar (16%) . Tiger				problems from seed information harvest.
(Panthera tigris), panther (leopard)				However, cost are high to develop and
(Panthera pardus) and wild dog (Conine				register new repellents for agricultural
alpinus) were the main cattle lifters in				use. In 2003 and 2004, we evaluated
the state. A total of 31 deaths and 64				feeding repellency of� 8 pesticides
injuries caused by wild animals were				registered by the Environmental
recorded from the state during the				Protection Agency for use in sunflower.
period 1983 to 1993. Thirteen indigenous				Caged red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius
methods used for controlling the crop				phoeniceus) were fed unshelled sunflower
damage had been identified. High voltage				seeds treated with the following
electric fencing using energizer was				pesticides: 5 pyrethroid insecticides,
effective for stopping elephants and				an organochlorine, an organophosphorus,
other herbivores from entering the				and a gungicide. Compared to untreated
agriculture fields. Crop damage is found				refernce groups, feeding rates were
to be linked to the cropping pattern and				reduced for 4 of the 5 pyrethroid
location of the agriculture fields.				insecticides. Only the organophosphorus
Short term and long-term measures needed				(chlorpyrifos), however, significantly
to prevent the crop damage are discussed				decreased feeding rates. More research
(Jayson� EA,1999).				on repellency effects of this product in
�				field efficacy trials is probably
7. � Bird crop damages				warranted based on the results of our
�				cage experiments. Depending on timing of
Use of non-lethal method to avoid crop				application, registered insecticides
damages by bird have been reported.				with blackbird feeding repellency could
Blueberry damages by cedar waxwings				provide supplemental economic benefits
(Bombycilla cedrotun were minimized.				to sunflower producers through dual
(Avery et al 2002).				purpose use ((Linz et al 2006).
�				�
8. Wild Bird damage				27. Persistent organic pollutants (POPS)
�				� � � � � � � � � Persistent organic
� � � � � � � � � In the northern Great				pollutants (POPs) have spread throughout
Plains of USA,� conflicts between				the global environment to threaten human
red-winged black birds (Agelaius				health and damage ecosystems, with
phoeniceus) and sunflower (Helianthus				evidence of POPs contamination in
annus)� growers have intensified since				wildlife, human blood, and breast milk
the late 1960s due� to the expanded�				documented worldwide. Based on data from
commercial production of sunflowers. We				the US Food and Drug Administration,
studied the potential population effects				this article provides a brief overview
of the removal of up to 2 million				of POPs residues in common foods in the
red-winged blackbirds annually under a 5				USA food supply. The analysis focuses on
year programme of baiting during spring				12 chemical compounds now targeted for
with DRC-1339 (3-choloro-4				an international phase out under the
methalalanine) treated rice. They also				Stockholm convention on POPs. The
examined whether lethal control, in				available information indicates that
combination with current levels of				POPs residues are present in virtually
breeding habitat management, would be				all categories of foods, including baked
cost effective in decreasing depredation				goods, fruit, vegetables, meat, poultry,
of sunflower crops during� late summer.				and dairy products. Residues of five or
They evaluated the cost benefit ration				more persistent toxic chemicals in a
for 4 culling scenarios involving (1)				single food item are not unusual, with
variable annual cullus, not exceeding 2				the most commonly found POPs being the
million birds, with and without density				pesticides DDT ( and its metabolites,
compensation (i.e. ,a positive				such as DDE) and dieldrin. Estimated
density-dependent response) on adult				daily doses of dieldrin alone exceed the
survival and (2) culls of 2 million				US Environmental Protection Agency and
birds annually with and without density				US Agency for Toxic Substances Disease
compensation .We constructed a red				Control reference dose for children.
-winged blackbird population model�				Given the widespread occurrence of POPs
represented as an age-based matrix and				in the food supply and the serious
calibrated to stable growth. We assumed				health risks associated with even
a total population of 27 million birds				extremely small levels of exposure,
on 1 April (week 1), representing the				prevention of further food contamination
red-winged blackbird breeding population				must be a national health policy
staging in eastern Southern Dakota and				priority in every country.
migrating into North Dakota.Under each				Implementation of the Stockholm
culling scenario, we reduced the stable				Convention will prevent further
red-winged blackbird population (Equally				accumulation of persistent toxic
for females and males) and project the				chemicals in food. Early ratification
population through week 23 of the annual				and rapid implementation of this treaty
cycle (2 Sep). We then evaluated the				should be an urgent priority for all
associated costs of the management				governments (Schafer et al 2002).
relative to potential sunflower crop				�
losses, assuming $0.07 in damage per				28. Netherland experiences
bird and� 4% loss to other factors.				� � � � � � � � � Traditionally,
Variable annual culls, likely the more				pink-footed geese Anser Brachyrhynchus
biologically realistic model scenarios,				wintering in Denmark, the Netherlands
yielded mean annual removals of 1 240				and Belgium have used the Danish sites
560 (SE=12 328) birds with density				only during mild winter, rapidly moving
compensation and 1 231 620 (SE=28 811)				southwards in case of cold spells. Since
birds without density compensation,,				the 1980s, an increasing number of geese
with cost benefit ratios of 1:2.3 and				have remained on the Danish wintering
1:3.6, respectively. Annual intrinsic				grounds despite cold spells, foraging on
rates for the model population over�				pastures Because winter wheat
the 5 year period ranged from 1-4 to				represented a reliable and profitable
4.8%. Considering potential variability				food source even in sever winter, the
in the effectiveness of the cull and�				recent change in Agricultural practice
the combination of direct and indirect				has enhanced the development of a new
costs,we contend� that the realized				wintering strategy of pink-footed geese,
benefits to sunflower growers by lethal				allowing a northward expansion of their
control of red-winged blackbiards via				winter range. Potentially, this will
spring baiting , in combination with				increase the crop damage conflict and
current nonlethal management efforts,				may lead to further population growth (
would likely be negligible (Blackwell et				Therkidsen et al 2000).
al 2003).				� � � � � � � � � Enclosure trials near
� � � � � � � � � The efficacy of				Huron, CA in the San Joaquin Valley from
hydrolyzed casein (HC) and retail				12 to 23 January 1999 , determine the
products that contain HC in reducing				efficacy of Flight Control TM (50%
deer damage to trees and shrubs was				anthraquinone) and Mesurol R (75%
determined in a field experiments				methiocarb) in preventing horned lark
conducted in USA during 2004-05. The				damage to lettuce seedlings. Flight
results of the experiments indicate the				control TM (FC) and Mesurol R were
suitability of HC as a deer repellent.				evaluated as foliar sprays at
Technical grade HC completely eliminated				application rates of 2.79 and 2.27 kg
browsing damage to evergreen shrubs				ha-1, respectively. Horned lark damage
(Gaultheria shallon) and conifers (Thuja				to lettuce seedlings treated with
plicata). Retail sources of HC were not				anthraquinone was greater (p=0.015) than
as effective as the pure hydrolyzed				for methiocarb R, 60 versus 20% ,
protein (Kimball et al 2005).				respectively, and seedlings in control
�				plots were 100% destroyed. While this
�				level of damage is probably unacceptable
9. Blackbird damages				to lettuce growers, it should be
� � � � � � � � � The economic impact				remembered that the enclosure situation
of blackbirds can be severe to rice				caused an artificially high bird
producers in the United States. One				pressure on the crop. Further studies in
approach to managing this damage is the				open fields under a more normal bird
application of bird-deterrent chemical				pressure are warranted ( York et al
to the crop. Previous pilot trials				2000).
suggested that caffeine offered				�
potential as a safe, economical bird				29. Ozone injury
repellent. In this study, cage feeding				� � � � � � � � � Incidence and
trials� with female red -winged				severity of visible foliar ozone injury
blackbirds and male brown headed				on cutleaf coneflower (Rudbeckia
cowbirds confirmed that a treatment rate				laciniata L.) and crown-bread (Verbesina
of 25000 ppm caffeine on rice seed				Occidentalis Walt). Were determined .It
reduced consumption as much as 76% .				is thus a matter of consideration that
Trials with mixed species blackbirds				zone injury may harm vegetation harmed
flocks in� a 0.2-ha flight pen resulted				by browsing or even cutting. Ozone
in just 4% loss of caffine-treated rice				injury was greatest on the lower leaves
compared to 43% loss of untreated rice.				for both species sampled with over 95%
. Field trials of a 10 000 ppm caffeine				of the injured leaves occurring on the
treatment in Louisiana revealed > 90% of				lower 50% of the plant. This is the
caffeine-treated rice seed remained				first report of foliar ozone injury on
unconsumed on days 2 and 3 of the study				these plant species in situ, in the
whereas blackbirds consumed > 80% of the				Park, illustrating the great variability
untreated seed. As a rice seed treatment				in symptom expression with time, and
to deter blackbirds, caffeine appears to				within and between populations (
be effective, economical and				Chappelka et al 2003).
environmentally safe, although				�
additional aquatic toxicity testing is				30. Protected arrears and humans
desirable. Improvements in formulation				� � � � � � � � � Knowledge of
will be needed to make the compound				conflicts between people and protected
practical for general agricultural spray				areas is required for the design of
applications and to extend the adherence				sustainable conservation strategies for
of caffeine to rice seeds in field				the management of most protected areas.
conditions ((Avery et al 2005).				The study identifies the causes of
�				conflicts between local people and the
10. Deer damage				Benous Wildlife Conservation Area
A questionnaire was distributed to over				(BWCA), which includes the Benous
2500 farms to know damage� caused by				National Park, In northern Cameroon.
lowland deer to crops, trees and				Informal interviews and questionnaires
vegetation. Results from the				were administered to 114 households in
questionnaire showed that 69% (n=1192)				three communities, and to 17 park staff
of responding farmers had deer on their				and 7 professional hunting guides from
holdings and that Roe and Fallow were				July -October 1997. Crop damage affected
the most frequently seen species. On				86% of the surveyed household, with 31%
those farms with deer present, cereals				of crop income lost on average, and with
were the most commonly damaged crop				the damage varying significantly between
(44%), but only 15% of these farmers				communities. Elephants, baboons, patas
claimed that the annual cost of damage				monkeys. Warthogs and green parrots
to cereals exceeded £500 each year for				accounted for 97% of crop damage, with
the whole farm. Validation assessments				the staple food maize and� millet being
were based on two visits to assess deer				most affected. Of� the respondents 27%
damage to the crop, with a deer species				experienced livestock depredation, with
density assessment during the March				18% of livestock income lost� on
assessment and an assessment of grain				average. The civet cat was the main
yield and quality during the August				predator. The involvement of local
assessment. Respondents were generally				people in illegal activities, their�
accurate in the density and species of				lack of access to natural resources, and
deer reported. The percentage of the				damage by wildlife were identified as
farm suffering damage attributable to				principal causes of conflicts. Local
deer was very variable, generally being				people, park staff and professional
higher at the first assessment than the				hunting guides had diverse and differing
second. The figures calculated for yield				perceptions about the causes of the
loss were generally low, Farmers were				conflicts and made various suggestions
poor at estimating the economic impact				for reduction of wildlife damage
of deer damage when compared to				including animal scaring and controlled
validation data, but a number of				shooting. We conclude that, under
parameters may have changed in the two				current wildlife policy, conflict
years between the questionnaire				between people and BWCA � (Bonous
distribution and validation, including				Wildlife Conservation area) is difficult
changes in deer density, crop rotations,				to resolve. To reduce conflicts and
and the marked drop in grain prices,				promote sustainable conservation, we
which may account for some of the				suggest co-management of wildlife
inaccuracies. There were no				involving all stakeholders,
statistically significant relationships				establishment of crop damage control
between deer damage assessments and				teams, and promotion of tangible
yield loss, either for individual				benefits to � local people. There may be
species or both species combined. The				a requirement for site -specificity in
relationship between Roe deer damage at				management strategies (Weladji et al
the harvest assessment and Roe deer				2003).
density was significant (Post et al,				�
2001).				31. Low technology use to avoid damages
Wildlife managers must consider the				� � � � � � � � � � It is suggested
public's preferences for wildlife				that an integrated, community-based, low
population levels when determining				technological approach will be the most
management policies. 849 farmers,				sustainable solution to this conflict (
hunters and the general public of				Osborn et al 2003).
Maryland. USA, were surveyed in 1996 to				� � � � � � � � � Blackbirds
determine their preferences for				(lcteridae) annually damage US$5-8
increasing, maintaining, or decreasing				million of ripening sunflower in the
deer population numbers. Using a random				northern Great Plains. Baiting
utility theoretic framework, the factors				blackbirds with avicide-treated rice
that explain preferences such as				during spring migration might reduce the
residential location, socioeconomic				regional breeding populations. birds can
characteristics, landscape damage,				be successfully baited with
agricultural yield loss and vehicle				avicide-treated rice placed in corn
accidents were analyzed. Results				stubble (Linz et al 2003).
suggested that the majority of people				� � � � � � � � � � � Plant debris
benefit from deer and want to keep deer				accumulation is viewed as a key factor
population at current levels. Other				determining small mammal abundance and
characteristics such as age, income,				potential damage in low-till
education, and residential location have				agricultural ((Stermer et al 2003)
minor or no impact on preferences.				areas.
Property damage, crop loss, landscape				� � � � � � � � � The projected total
damage, and car accidents appear to be				value of crop yield losses due to
the biggest concerns ( Curtis et al				wildlife damage for buffer zone villages
2001).				located in Garhwal Himalaya in about
�				Rs.5 38 620 (US$15 389). Besides food
11. Sika deer population in Japan				grain, horticultural crops i.e apple,
� � � � � � � � � Sika deer Cervus				also suffered.
nippon population in eastern Hokkaido,

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