| Crop Damage by Wild Animalssection i general | | | | determine their preferences for increasing, |
| discussions | | | | maintaining, or decreasing deer population |
| | | | numbers. Using a random utility theoretic |
| G.M. Wani | | | | framework, the factors that explain |
| | | | preferences such as residential location, |
| Ph.D ; D.V.M (Germany) | | | | socioeconomic characteristics, landscape |
| | | | damage, agricultural yield loss and vehicle |
| FN ISSGAPU, FN DAAD | | | | accidents were analyzed. Results suggested |
| | | | that the majority of people benefit from deer |
| Director Extension Education / SAMETI | | | | and want to keep deer population at current |
| | | | levels. Other characteristics such as age, |
| Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural | | | | income, education, and residential location |
| Sciences and Technology of Kashmir | | | | have minor or no impact on preferences. |
| | | | Property damage, crop loss, landscape damage, |
| Shalimar, Srinagar, 191121 | | | | and car accidents appear to be the biggest |
| | | | concerns ( Curtis et al 2001). |
| Â | | | | |
| | | | Â |
| Â | | | | |
| | | | 11. Sika deer population in Japan |
| Â | | | | |
| | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Sika deer Cervus |
| A brief global review to asses the damage | | | | nippon population in eastern Hokkaido, Japan, |
| caused to cultivated crops by wild animals | | | | increased rapidly during 1990-1998 . This |
| around the world. The review was attempted in | | | | increase appeared to have halted in |
| response to a recommendation of ICAR Regional | | | | 1999-2000, probably due to increased hunting |
| Committee No.1 held in Oct, 2007 at Solan, | | | | and nuisance control. The period of rapid |
| H.p. presided over by Hon'ble Director | | | | increase was associated with a |
| General, ICAR Dr. Mangala Rai inauguration | | | | disproportionately rapid increase in |
| was chaired by Hon'ble Agriculture Minister | | | | compensation paid for deer damage to crops. |
| J&K, Jenab Ab. Aziz Zargar. | | | | We studied changes in diet during 1990-2000, |
| | | | as reflected by stable isotope ratios of C |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â | | | | and N in tooth collagen. We hypothesized that |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â | | | | isotope ratios would demonstrate dietary |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â | | | | shifts related to population levels and/or |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â | | | | time, and that shifts in isotope ratios would |
|    Author | | | | be consistent with increasing individual |
| | | | consumption of pasture grasses at higher |
| Â | | | | population levels, delta 13C isotope ratios |
| | | | of tooth collagen in 3 year-old sika |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â | | | | indicated a diet dominated by C3 plants |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â | | | | throughout the period, and that forage |
| Â Â Â Â Â | | | | species other than pasture grasses and dwarf |
| | | | bamboo Sasa nipponica ( the main crop and |
|  | | | | woodland understory plants, respectively) |
| | | | were important elements. There was a |
| Â | | | | significant decline in the delta 13C isotope |
| | | | ratio during 1990-2000 in both males and |
| Â | | | | females, delta 15N values showed no trend |
| | | | with time for males, but increased over time |
| Published by:Â Director State Agricultural | | | | in females. Indices of population (Sightings |
| Management and Extension Training Institute | | | | per Unit Effort, SPUE) were negatively |
| of Kashmir (SAMETI-K) , SKUAST-K , Shalimar , | | | | correlated with female delta 13C, and |
| Post Box: 461, G.P.O, Srinagar. | | | | positively correlated with female delta 15N, |
| | | | values indicating a shift in diet over the |
| Â | | | | period , especially among females. This shift |
| | | | may be related to population and/or offtake |
|  | | | | levels, in particular the rapid increase |
| | | | in female offtake for nuisance control and |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â | | | | hunting during the period. The data are |
| Â Â Â Â Â Publication No: SAMETI/Pub/3 | | | | consistent with a relative increase in |
| 1000/January, 2008 | | | | pasture grass consumption per individual at |
| | | | higher population levels, however, other |
| Â | | | | explanations of the data are equally |
| | | | plausible. Possible dietary changes, and |
| Â | | | | other factors, influencing the observed shift |
| | | | in isotope ratios are discussed. Although |
| Â | | | | statistically significant, the magnitude of |
| | | | dietary shifts nevertheless appeared |
| P.O.Box: 461, GPO, Srinagar, E.Mail: Â Â Â | | | | small, and did not provide evidence which |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Phone:Â Â Â Â Â Â | | | | would justify modifying the current policy, |
| 0194-2461317,0194-2463460,0194-2463459Â | | | | of limiting crop damage through managed |
| | | | population reduction to about 25% of peak |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Cell: Â Â Â Â | | | | levels( Halley et al 2006). |
| Â Â Â 09419095342Â ; | | | | |
| Residence:0194-2431508,2435741 | | | | Â |
| | | | |
|  | | | | 12. White-tailed deer damages |
| | | | |
| Â | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â White-tailed deer |
| | | | (Odocoileus virginianus) may cause more |
| Â | | | | damage than any other species of wildlife. |
| | | | These damages include crop loss, automobile |
| Introduction: | | | | and aviation collisions, disease |
| | | | transmission, environmental degradation, and |
|  | | | | destruction of ornamental plantings. One |
| | | | practical method of controlling deer damage |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Wild animal-human | | | | is the use of exclusionary fences. The |
| conflicts have started since beginning of | | | | relatively high cost of labor and materials |
| human era from Adam and Eve. This conflict of | | | | required to build effective fences has |
| wilderness made man to hide in caves and he | | | | limited most applications to the protection |
| was called as "Cave man". Slowly, with his | | | | of orchards, vegetable farms, other high |
| advancement it is he who invented Axe and | | | | -value resources, and mitigation of human |
| other weapon in stone and iron ages to | | | | health and safety risks. Improvements in |
| frighten the wild animals, initially. Later | | | | fence technology resulting in less expensive, |
| on he hunted them to save himself. This | | | | yet effective fence have expanded the use of |
| feeling of uncertainty and fear of wild | | | | fence to manage damage caused by deer. Fence |
| animals and wilderness reduced with the | | | | typically installed to manage white-tailed |
| invention of fire. He made sharp weapons of | | | | deer damage include wire or plastic mesh, |
| bones and iron. These initial weapons were | | | | electrified high-tensile steel wire, and |
| the beginning of this conflict, Animal human | | | | electrified polytape or polyrope fence. They |
| conflict. | | | | reviewed the scientific literature on fencing |
| | | | to determine which fence designs would be the |
| Thirty thousand years ago, the human | | | | most effective for excluding deer in a |
| population rose to 6 million. They were still | | | | variety of situations (VerCauteren et al |
| hunters. With the invention of fire, he set | | | | 2006). |
| fire a vast majority of sanctuaries, which | | | | |
| scared wild life and they migrated from his | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â The installation |
| neighborhood. Many forests, hills and | | | | of fences to protect agricultural products, |
| difficult terrains were still beyond the | | | | natural resources, or other areas from deer |
| reach of man three thousand years before, | | | | (Odocoileus spp.) can be expensive and |
| although human population has increased to 60 | | | | potential benefits of fencing are difficult |
| million. Man has already started primitive | | | | to quantify. A rational method is needed to |
| agriculture. He had made his terrains and | | | | help evaluate whether fencing can be cost |
| wild life scared by him left his close | | | | effective and which fence designs will be |
| habitats and searched for fresh abodes. Man | | | | optimal for particular applications. They |
| by now had lust for fur, horns, ornaments and | | | | describe an interactive, dynamic simulation |
| other forest resources. He invented many | | | | model that conducts economic analyses and |
| means to frighten whole wild life. He became | | | | predicts economic benefit associated with |
| a "Danger "not only for wild animals but for | | | | fences for crops relative to area and |
| his own species, environment and | | | | perimeter of protected plot, value of crop, |
| eco-biodiversity. | | | | percentage of crop damaged by deer annually |
| | | | prior to fencing, efficacy of fence, and |
| Three hundred years ago he industrialized | | | | costs of fence materials and labor. Users of |
| crop production and produced enough food, for | | | | the model can easily adjust these variables |
| nearly 600 million people. This continued and | | | | to fit their individual situations and needs. |
| from 30 year now he is feeding 6000 million | | | | By running a series of simulations, model |
| people. Today we have a global food security | | | | users can answer questions related directly |
| for 7.5 billion. Human food security gains | | | | to fence efficacy and cost-effectiveness |
| resulted in reduction of all other wild | | | | (VerCauteren K et al 2006). |
| species, thus, the origin of wild- life- | | | | |
| human conflict is the lust of man for more | | | | Â |
| food, more luxury or sometimes fun for | | | | |
| hunting or fur. This reduced wild life | | | | 13. Corn damage by wild life |
| reserves and now a open conflict came into | | | | |
| existence. | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Corn damages in |
| | | | USA were estimated at 6.6 per hac due to wild |
| Many man-wild life conflicts have been | | | | life. The white tailed deer was the wild |
| reported from Gir forests of Gujarat, Rajaji | | | | animal responsible for loss. The average |
| National Park in UP and many other states | | | | hacters owned by farmers were 125 out of |
| where forest lands became cultivable lands. | | | | which 55 hectares were sown corn. (Tzilkowsi |
| Elephants, wild boars, monkeys, squirrels, | | | | et al 2002). |
| deer , birds like crows, parakeets, wild | | | | |
| dogs, jackals, gaur, sambur, langure, fowls, | | | | Â |
| pea cocks, neilgai, Hippos, biats, | | | | |
| blackbirds, rodents, wild pigs, feral | | | | 14. Â Deer Damage |
| species, primates, beetles, foxes, pigeons, | | | | |
| feral hogs and a variety of other species | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Deer (Odocoileus |
| damage crops. The carnivores even attack | | | | spp.) can cause substantial damage to |
| human too. These attacks are for search of | | | | agricultural crops, resulting in economic |
| food or their loss of habitat. Many such | | | | losses for producers. They developed a deer |
| accidents came to be known in Jammu and | | | | activated bio-acoustic frightening device to |
| Kashmir. The bear leopod and other wild | | | | reduce white-tailed deer (O, virginianus) |
| animals are reducing in number. Their | | | | damage in agricultural fields. The device |
| habitats used by human. | | | | considered of an infrared detection system |
| | | | that activated an audio component which |
| The human causalities are due to carnivorous | | | | broadcast recorded distress and alarm calls |
| species, but herbivores inflict economic and | | | | of deer. They tested the device against |
| human losses too. The crop damages by wild | | | | unprotected controls in cornfields during the |
| life has been the new threat to agricultural | | | | silking-tasseling stage of growth in July |
| productivity throughout the world. This also | | | | 2001. The device was not effective in |
| concerns us in Asia and India. This review is | | | | reducing damage: track-count indices |
| aimed to find out: | | | | (F1,4=0.02), corn yield (F1,9=1.27,P=0.289), |
| | | | and estimated damage levels (F1,10=0.87, |
| 1.      Extent of damage to | | | | P=0.374) did not differ between experimental |
| crops. | | | | and control fields. The size |
| | | | (F2,26=1,00,P=0.380), location |
| 2.      Nature of crop damage | | | | (F2,25=0.39,P=0.684), and percent overlap |
| | | | (F2,25=0.20,P=0.818) of use-areas of |
| 3.      Ways and means to | | | | radiomarked female deer did not differ |
| prevent these losses. | | | | between during and after treatment periods. |
| | | | They concluded that the deer-activated |
| 4.      A strategic planning to | | | | bio-acoustic device was not effective in |
| drive a line between wildlife conservation | | | | protecting cornfields in this study; however, |
| and farm economics especially in India. | | | | the device may be more effective in small |
| | | | areas such as gardens or for high value crops |
| Â | | | | that do not grow tall enough to offer |
| | | | protective cover (Gilsdorf et al 2004). |
| Executive Abstracts and Strategic | | | | |
| elementaries: [EASE] | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â White -tailed |
| | | | deer (Odocoileus virginianus) cause millions |
| 1.    Importance | | | | of dollars of damage to agricultural crops |
| | | | annually . They tested the effectiveness of |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â | | | | propane exploders and Electronic Guards |
| Â Â Â Species causing crop damages ranges | | | | (Pocatello Supply Depot, Pocatello, Id). For |
| from elephant's wild birds, monkeys, | | | | reducing deer damage in corn fields during |
| squirrels, deer, parakeet, wild dogs, foxes, | | | | the silking-tasseling stage of growth. |
| deer and many others like Neilgai. On an | | | | Track-count indices (F2,7=0.70,P=0.532), corn |
| average this damage to crops by wild animals | | | | yield (F2,6=0.14, P=0.873), and estimated |
| amounts to U$ 961 per hectare. It is much | | | | damage levels (F2, 12=1,45 P=0.272) did not |
| more than an Indian Farmer earns from a | | | | differ between experimental and control |
| hacter annually. Therefore, by these | | | | fields. The size (F2,11=0.08,P =0.924), |
| estimates, the damages are spectacular and | | | | Location (F2,9=0.30, P=0.750), and percent |
| economically important. | | | | overlap (F2,9=0.46, P=0.644) of use -areas of |
| | | | radiomarked female deer in the vicinity of |
| 2.      Human Elephant conflicts | | | | experimental fields did not differ among |
| (HEC): | | | | before, during and after 18 day treatment |
| | | | periods. In a related study, we placed |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â i) Economic | | | | propane exploders in cornfields within |
| Losses: | | | | use-areas of 12 radiomarked female deer. The |
| | | | deer did not react appreciably to the |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â | | | | devices; the size (F2, 17=0.08, P=0.921), |
| Â Â Â Among elephants crop raiding is | | | | location (F2,22=1.37, P=0.275), and percent |
| common. The crops near their home ranges are | | | | overlap (f2,10=0.47, P=0.636) of deer use |
| damaged more. Elephants damaging crops had | | | | areas did not differ among before, during, |
| twice big ranges than those who did not | | | | and after 14 day treatment periods. They |
| damage the crops. Thus, more proximity of the | | | | conclude that propane exploders and |
| crops near their ranges are prone to crops | | | | Electronic Guards have limited potential for |
| damages. Train accidents instigate elephants | | | | reducing deer damage to corn at the |
| more to crop or human damages. Indonesia saw | | | | silking-tasseling stage (Glisdorf et al |
| more frequent raids of elephants on crops. | | | | 2004l. |
| Human elephant conflict (HEC) is frequent and | | | | |
| poses serious challenges in Africa. Both male | | | | Â |
| groups and family group attacks have been | | | | |
| observed. HEC losses in West Bengal were | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â A welfare measure |
| worth 3.2 croses of Rupees. This damage | | | | for wildlife damage to Ontario (Canada) field |
| occurred in 3368sq kms.radius. The numerical | | | | crop producers during the 1998 was. The |
| number of elephants was 62 only. Assam | | | | welfare measure presented in this study |
| observes damages to the woodcutters by | | | | provides a more accurate picture of losses |
| elephants Asian wild Elephants raid and | | | | from wildlife damage to agricultural. Other |
| damage crops in herds of 10-13 individuals or | | | | damage estimates based on yield loss |
| big herds comprising 50-74 elephants. In | | | | overstate the damage since benefits from |
| Darjeeling district alone over an area of 200 | | | | wildlife are netted out. Results for the |
| kms. East to west, in last two decades 277 | | | | Ontario field crop producers indicate that |
| houses were demolished by elephants, killing | | | | the magnitude of the difference between the |
| 66 people in 5 districts. As a result of this | | | | value of the yield loss and the welfare |
| conflict 23 elephants lost their lives. In | | | | measure of damage is approximately 50%. This |
| 2001, economic loss of the order of US fifty | | | | difference indicates that most farmers were |
| thousand dollars was estimated to be | | | | willing to tolerate the wildlife damage they |
| inflicted by elephants. This scenario | | | | experienced (Heigh et al 2001). |
| necessitates comprehensive measures to be | | | | |
| taken to lessen these damage. The review of | | | | Â |
| the measures, around the world suggest | | | | |
| following few studies to be undertaken and | | | | 15. Grapevine damages |
| resultant measures to be applied to lessen | | | | |
| these damages.ii)Â Â Â Â Mitigation of | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â In field trials |
| losses: | | | | in 1999-2000 in Gundla Pochampally, Andhra |
| | | | Pradesh, India , the incidence of damage to |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Methods developed | | | | green grapevines was studied. Visits to the |
| and used to mitigate crop damages by | | | | vines by bats begain around 45 minutes after |
| elephants consisted of frightening of animals | | | | sunset and foraging continued until 1 hour |
| by drum beating, firegracks or even air gun | | | | before sunrise. Damage occurred to ripe fruit |
| fires. Guarding the crops by fences or even | | | | only, and increased around harvesting time, |
| using electric fencing or raising poles and | | | | percentage damage ranged from 0 to 100% |
| wiring may be effective. Chemical based | | | | (Bhargavi et al, 2001). |
| deterrents, and electric fencing have been | | | | |
| found to reduce crop damages. High voltage | | | | Â |
| electric fencing using energizers in west | | | | |
| have prevented wild animals damaging crop but | | | | 16. Â Â Hippo damage |
| this preposition may not be applicable in | | | | |
| areas where even habitations do not have | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â The introduction |
| access to electricity. However, this method | | | | to the paper described the various ecological |
| may act as a temporary boundary separating | | | | effects known to result from grazing, |
| wild and domestic habitats. This could | | | | movement along paths, and wallowing by the |
| prevent intrusions from sly vatic to domestic | | | | common hippo. Hippopotamus amphibious. The |
| foci. Guarding fields, digging trenches, | | | | study reported was carried out at Kainji Lake |
| modifying cropping patterns have a | | | | National Park., Nigeria, during  the dry |
| possibility of reducing man elephant | | | | season periods {of 1991 and 1992} . The |
| conflicts or Human elephant conflicts. A 30% | | | | method adopted by Agnew, A.D.Q. (East African |
| open space between two habitats may help to | | | | Wildlife Journal (1966) 4, 38-46) was used to |
| avoid HEC. This means a distance to be | | | | assess hippo foraging footprints at three |
| maintained between cropping fields and | | | | hippo pool sites. A total of 32 footpaths |
| elephant habitates. A proper investigation on | | | | were enumerated out of which 18 were located |
| these lines is needed. A grid based | | | | at Kaii hippo pool site, while the frequency |
| geographical information system (GIS) with a | | | | of utilization of paths was also higher for |
| 25Km2 resolution may help to have cost | | | | this site relative to those in other area. |
| effective data source to analyze these | | | | The upstream-downstream trend in hippo |
| situations. There is urgent need of | | | | occupancy of dry  season water pools could |
| identifying spatial predictors of HEC. On the | | | | expose the hippo to crop damage conflicts at |
| basis of this study one can suggest or plan | | | | the peripheral areas. |
| mitigation strategies, early warnings of | | | | |
| attacks, use of barriers and deterrents. The | | | | Â |
| utility of the methods could be assessed for | | | | |
| land use and livelihood strategies to limit | | | | 17. Hygo-Japan-mammal crop damages |
| HEC. | | | | |
| | | | Â |
| Â | | | | |
| | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Mammals |
| 3.      Dear-Nilgai Damages. | | | | inhabiting  Hyogo consist of seven orders, |
| | | | 17 families and about 40 species. Except for |
|          A survey of 2500 | | | | Lagomorpha and Artiodactyla, the remaining |
| farms in UK revealed that 69% (n=192) cereal | | | | five orders among them include species which |
| crops were damaged by deer. This damage | | | | need some protection and they total about 55% |
| costed £500 per annum per farm. Damages | | | | of all species excluding extinct, introduced |
| varied with deer density. In USA too deer | | | | and feral species. Ecological information in |
| damages comprised of crop loss, landscape | | | | Hyogo prefecture has been accumulated in few |
| damages, car accidents and property damages. | | | | protection-required species there is no |
| Nilgai damages alongwith deer damages are | | | | recent information of spatial distribution on |
| common in India too. Tree cover of Acacia in | | | | Oriental water-shrew, Japanese noctule-bat |
| the area is generally used as shelter by | | | | and Japanese dormouse; and little information |
| Nilgai. We have encountered huge crop damage | | | | on Japanese shrew, Japanese horse-shoe bat, |
| in Mathura (CIRG) and nearby area by Nilgai | | | | Japanese large -footed bat. Schreiber's |
| visits. Grazing and browsing of Nilgai | | | | bent-winged bat, Japanese tube-nosed bat, |
| inflict losses on farms. This is regarded as | | | | common parti-colored bat, Japanese squirrel, |
| a mammalian crop threat by the farmers. This | | | | Japanese small flying-squirrel, Japanese |
| behaviour of their inflict ozone injury to | | | | giant flying-squirrel, smith's vole harvest |
| the young sapling, so precious for the growth | | | | mouse and Japanese badger. Damage and |
| of trees in Indian semi-arid farms. | | | | population managements is also necessary in |
| | | | sika deer and Japanese wild boar, to reduce |
| Â | | | | their crop--damaging, and comprehensive |
| | | | management in Japanese black bear, an |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Corn damages by | | | | endangered local population, to prevent |
| deer in USA amounts to 6.6.% per hectare. In | | | | human-bear fatal accident. Habitat alteration |
| an area where a farmer owned 125 hectare on | | | | due to human activities, however, has |
| an average 55 hectares were used to sow corn. | | | | affected the population sizes and spatial |
| There is a 6.6% loss of the product which is | | | | distribution of all these, mammals in Hyogo. |
| a huge economic loss. Similar damages by deer | | | | Habitat management has priority over damage. |
| in Ontario, Canada, Portugal, Japan, South | | | | Fundamental and applied scientific studies |
| America and other parts of the world have | | | | and understanding of ecology and wildlife |
| been reviewed. In Virginia too a study | | | | management science needs promotion by |
| involving 1506 agricultural producer farmers | | | | citizens (Mitani M 2000). |
| revealed 58% of them experiencing deer | | | | |
| damages. Ways and means to prevent such | | | | Â |
| attacks on crops have been reviewed. Most of | | | | |
| the possible measures to be adopted are | | | | 18. Monkey damage |
| similar to these described for elephants | | | | |
| (HEC). | | | | Â |
| | | | |
| Â | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Forty-seven |
| | | | property owners in Entebbe, Uganda were |
| 4.   Other Mammal and bird damages | | | | questioned about vervet monkey activities on |
| | | | their property. The objective was to |
| Â | | | | investigate the interactions between humans |
| | | | and vervet monkeys in an agricultural area |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Monkey damages | | | | adjacent to a forest zone. Other studies have |
| maize, sweet potato and other crops. It is | | | | reported that farms located within 300 m of a |
| suggested to reduce or change cropping | | | | forested boundary probably incur the greatest |
| pattern or alternating with non-agricultural | | | | risk of crop-raiding. Two other factors that |
| activities near location of monkey habitats. | | | | may influence susceptibility to vervet |
| Various methods are reviewed. Bat damage, | | | | crop-raiding were also examined: the types of |
| Hygo crop damages in Japan, Grape wine | | | | crops grown and the types of direct |
| damages by bats in Andra Pradesh, India have | | | | preventive measures used. The effect of these |
| been studied. Crop economic loss assessment | | | | two factors on vervet crop-raiding is not |
| has been reviewed in these pages. Clover | | | | straight forward. However, the distance a |
| rather than grass can reduce wild mammal | | | | property is located from the forest edge is |
| damages. Alley cropping of black walnuts | | | | an important factor influencing vervet crop |
| helped to save soyabean and maize crop | | | | raiding. Surveyed  gardens 200 m from the |
| damages. Pesticide damages wildlife and | | | | forest edge received significantly less crop |
| minimize their attacks, enclosures and other | | | | -raiding than farms located 100 or 50m |
| electric fencing help to avoid such damage. | | | | (P=0.040,< alpha=0.05). In this study, 8 out |
| Can one use harmful means to save crops, need | | | | of 13 farmers (61.5%) said that maize, sweet |
| a suitable strategy to preserve ecology and | | | | potato, or both, were most likely to be |
| biodiversity. Both crops and wild animals | | | | damaged by the vervets. Other crops singled |
| need security and conservation. A management | | | | out by the farmers are receiving damage by |
| strategy is needed to safeguard human and | | | | the vervets were bananas, mangoes, groundnuts |
| wildlife equally. Â A policy framework is | | | | and yam. They suggest that the development of |
| envisaged. | | | | non-agricultural activities on land |
| | | | directly adjacent to forested areas may |
| Â | | | | reduce vervet crop -raiding by deterring |
| | | | vervets from traveling greater distances from |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Blackbird crop | | | | the forest edge due to increased obstacles or |
| damage in USA amounts to 5-8 million dollars. | | | | risks  (Saj et al 2001). |
| A considerable sum of crores of rupees have | | | | |
| been estimated to be damages in the form of | | | | Â |
| crop, human and property losses by wild | | | | |
| animals, birds and other rodents in India. | | | | 19. Bait damage |
| Many measures to reduce these losses are | | | | |
| needed and have been reviewed. | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â The longevity of |
| | | | zinc phosphide (ZP) on whole wheat bait  |
| Â | | | | was determined at the end of the "dry" and |
| | | | "wet" seasons, Â is Western Australia.. |
| Â | | | | While the total rainfall during the two |
| | | | trials was 74 mm and 155mm, substantial loss |
| Â | | | | of ZP was recorded only after significant |
| | | | rainfall events. Irrespective of season, the |
| Â | | | | loss of ZP from bait applied in bait stations |
| | | | was minimal. The maximum recorded loss was |
|  | | | | 17% and this occurred after 21 days' |
| | | | exposure during the wet season where the bait |
| Review | | | | stations were placed in-crop. Nevertheless, |
| | | | regardless of the application method, |
| 1. Wild animals damaging crops | | | | sufficient ZP always remained on the wheat |
| | | | bait. Theoretically  it was lethal to rats |
| To elephants wild boar, porcupine, rheus | | | | for at least 8-14 days (Twigg et al., Â |
| macaque (Macaca mulatta), hoary-bellied | | | | 2001). |
| squirrel, barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak), | | | | |
| red-breasted parakeet (Psittacula alexandri), | | | | 20.Venezuela experience: |
| and wild dog are wild animals damaging crops. | | | | |
| | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â In Venezuela, |
| Methods developed and being used to mitigate | | | | lethal control of wintering Dickcissels |
| man-wildlife conflict include, frightening | | | | (Spiza Americana) is considered a threat to |
| the animals; guarding the crops; and using | | | | the species survival. To help farmers protect |
| some sort of scarecrow and traps (Miah et al | | | | their rice and sorghum crops from by |
| 2001). | | | | Dickcissels and to minimize the killing of |
| | | | large numbers of these birds, alternative |
| Accurate estimation of crop damage by | | | | non-lethal crop protection measures are |
| wildlife (raccoons, white-tailed deer, and | | | | needed. To that end, the responses of captive |
| coyotes) often requires labour-intensive | | | | Dickcissels to three bird-repellent chemicals |
| sampling procedure. Variable area transect | | | | (anthraquinone,methyl anthranilate and |
| (VAT) sampling has been identified as a | | | | methiocarb) applied to rice seed were |
| potential labour-saving alternative to | | | | evaluated. In one-cup feeding trials, |
| quadrat sampling ( Engerman et al 2002). | | | | treatments of methiocarb (0.05% g/g, applied |
| | | | as Mesurol 75%Â wettable powder) and |
| Â | | | | anthraquinone (0.5%, applied as Flight |
| | | | Control) reduced consumption of rice by 70% |
| 2. Wild life Human conflicts | | | | relative to pretreatment consumption. Other |
| | | | anthraquinone treatments (0.05,0.1%) and |
| Agricultural landowners suffer in the form of | | | | methyl authranilate (0.05%) were inrffective. |
| damage to crops, livestock, and other | | | | In two -cup trials, with untreated millet as |
| property. Some wildlife agencies maintained | | | | the alternative food, consumption of rice |
| abatement and compensation programmes. A | | | | treated with 0.05 and 0.1%Â anthraquinone |
| model of deer-inflicted crop damage used to | | | | was reduced by 90% relative to pretreatment |
| facilitate agency decisions regarding deer | | | | levels. Overall, Dickcissels responded to the |
| densities and distribution, abatement use, | | | | repellents similarly to the red-winged |
| and to forecast compensation. The model is | | | | blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus). Because |
| applied to field-level compensation claims in | | | | Flight Control has been used successfully to |
| Wisconsin, USA. The results are consistent | | | | reduce blackbird use of rice fields in the |
| with theory, ( Yoder J, 2002). | | | | USA, the prospect is good for successful |
| | | | reduction of damage to repening rice by |
| Â | | | | Dickcissels in Venezuela, particularly if |
| | | | repellent use is coupled with the |
| 3. Crop Economic loss due to wild life | | | | establishment of alternative feeding sites ( |
| | | | Avery et al 2001). Deer selected carrots over |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â People's | | | | all green manure crops. |
| perceptions were discerned through | | | | |
| participatory discussions covering 419 | | | | Â |
| households distributed in 10 villages in the | | | | |
| buffer zone. Traditional uncodified rights of | | | | 21. Nilgai damages in India |
| local people were substantially reduced | | | | |
| through policy interventions set in since | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Crop-damage by |
| 1860s. Local people as well as tourists have | | | | nilgai has been widely reported from India. |
| been excluded from the core zone covering an | | | | Â Are give Nilgai is for increasing in this |
| area of 625 km2 since 1982. Deterioration of | | | | region. Lack of natural predators, |
| rural economy due to damage to crop and | | | | deforestation overgrazing and the protection |
| livestock by wildlife and, termination of | | | | of these animals from Hindu communities are |
| opportunities of income from wild medicinal | | | | reasons for their overpopulation. Tree cover |
| plant resources and tourism in the core zone | | | | of Acacia are generally used by nilgai as a |
| were the key negative impacts of conservation | | | | day time shelter but not food, Â therefore |
| policy felt by more than 90% of respondents. | | | | it goes for crop-raiding in the late evening |
| Mean annual economic loss per household was | | | | and at night, jumping across 6-7 feet high |
| estimated as Rs.1285, Rs. 1195 and Rs.156 due | | | | stone wall, barbed fencing and fences of dead |
| to damage caused by wildlife to food crops, | | | | or live thorny plant material and any other |
| fruit trees and beehives, respectively, Rs. | | | | fencing/barrier made to protect the crop-. |
| 1587Â due to ban on collection of wild | | | | Due to habit of both grazing as well as |
| medicinal plants for marketing and Rs.7904 | | | | browsing they devore every kind of farm |
| due to ban on tourism in the core zone. The | | | | species (both rabi and kharif crops). It has |
| Reserve authority granted compensation for | | | | been observed that eating less but destroying |
| livestock killed by wildlife but it was | | | | more by trampling and causing damage are |
| hardly 5% of the market value of killed | | | | therefore regarded as serious mammalian crop |
| livestock as assessed by the people. People | | | | pest and farmers wants to get ride of this |
| did not appreciate much the present benefits | | | | unconventional pest. The farmers chase them |
| from the reserve management in the form of | | | | away by just following them by making loud |
| wages for carrying out afforestation work, | | | | sound by crackers or air gun fires, following |
| partial compensation for livestock | | | | through tractors, empty tin or dried pumpkin |
| depredation and availability of solar power | | | | filled with small stones and connected with |
| devices, wool, and spinning devices. | | | | strings. Technically, carrots(enclosures), |
| Approximately 95% respondents identified | | | | trenching or power fencing are suggested to |
| empowerment of local people in respect of | | | | mitigate the crop damage. Secondly, animals |
| realizing income from timber from dead | | | | could be translocated to wildlife sanctuaries |
| diseased trees in community forests, income | | | | from the sites they seen overcrowded or |
| from medicinal plants in buffer zone and | | | | severe crop raiding problems (Goyal et al |
| opening of the core zone for tourism as | | | | 2000). |
| potential development options. Improvement in | | | | |
| rural economy, the prime concern of local | | | | Â |
| people, has not received as much attention as | | | | |
| legal enforcement of protection by the | | | | 22. Pesticides and wildlife |
| reserve management. There is a need for | | | | |
| developing policies and management actions | | | | A range of monitoring activities has shown |
| that serve the economic interests of local | | | | impacts of anticholinesterase pesticides on |
| people together with enhancement of | | | | UK wildlife, and continued risks are evident |
| environment conservation goal (Maikhuri et al | | | | from laboratory and field experiments, |
| 2001). | | | | together with the scale of use in the field. |
| | | | Along with other broad spectrum insecticides, |
| Â | | | | many organophosphates have adverse direct |
| | | | effects on non-target arthropods in farmland, |
| 4. Crop selection: | | | | and so are likely to contribute towards |
| | | | indirect effects of pesticides on farmland |
| Damage was less (34%) in experimental carrot | | | | biodiversity. The anticholinesterase |
| as multiple crop than carrots as only crop | | | | insecticides have both lethal and sublethal |
| planted (62% damage). Staggered plantings of | | | | effects on aquatic wildlife, however the |
| canola, which continuously produced flowers, | | | | history of recent incidents of damage to |
| was the most effective lure crop of the green | | | | river ecology following the wider use of |
| manure crops we tested. Carrot producers | | | | synthetic pyrethroid sheep dips, illustrates |
| should use electric fences or 2.4-m woven | | | | the need to consider the implications of |
| wire fences, perhaps combined with staggered | | | | changes in the use of alternative products |
| canola plantings, to reduce carrot | | | | when reviewing these insecticides ( Burn |
| depredations ( Schwab et al 2001). | | | | 2000). |
| | | | |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â The colver, | | | | Â |
| rather than fertilized grass, is more | | | | |
| effective cover crop on AFAs, against damage | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â The use of |
| by migratory geese. The sward should be | | | | anthraguinone-based flight control and methyl |
| managed to encourage clover growth, which | | | | anthranilate-based non toxic avian foraging |
| would probably involve frequent cutting but | | | | repellent we used to avoid crop damage by |
| no fertilizer. Further research is needed on | | | | sandhill cranes. Thought both repellents were |
| clover replenishment rate over the winter | | | | effective at deterring cranes from treated |
| season and possible benefits of clover leys | | | | corn, neither has been tested on corn under |
| to other wild life (McKay et al 2001). Alley | | | | field conditions. (Blackwell et al 2001). |
| cropping of black walnuts and percent with | | | | |
| maize and soyabean rotations may avoid will | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Oak seedlings |
| animal damages. Tree -crop ratio of 1:10 may | | | | were scientifically raised. Seedling |
| help( Godsey, 2000). | | | | mortality and wild life browse damages were |
| | | | minimal when certain herbicide mixture was |
| Â | | | | used. Biologically and aesthetically, the |
| | | | procedure was extremely successful (Ezell et |
| 5. Elephan- human conflicts: | | | | al 1999). |
| | | | |
| Conflicts between elephants (Elephas maximus) | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Pre-commercially |
| and human occur in Rajaji National Park | | | | thinned (forests are less prone to moose |
| (RNP), Uttar Pradesh, one of eleven reserves | | | | damage (McLaren et al, 2000). |
| designated in India, to conserve Asian | | | | |
| elephants. Elephant-human. The conflicts in | | | | Â |
| RNP from 1996 to 1999 were studied, and all | | | | |
| human and elephant deaths or injuries caused | | | | 23. Pesticide use in conflicts |
| by conflict were recorded. The impact of | | | | |
| human colonies on elephant movement was | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Pesticides can |
| studied in 18 villages along 17 km of the | | | | cause damage to man and beneficial organism. |
| sourthern boundary of the study site and 4 | | | | Some sub-lethal effects of pesticides were |
| village in the Chilla-Motichur corridor. | | | | studied in birds with a view to identifying |
| Three male and four female elephants were | | | | characteristic biochemical responses that |
| radio tracked for 1-2 years. Primary | | | | may be useful for the monitoring of exposure |
| conflicts included crop raiding, competition | | | | to sub-lethal levels in the field. Pesticides |
| between humans and elephants for vegetation, | | | | were used; demeton-S-methyl, |
| and elephant mortality due to train | | | | (DSM),chlorpyriphos, chlorfenviphos, |
| accidents. Adult males that raided crops had | | | | triazophos, pirimicarb, methiocarb and |
| home ranges twice as large as adult males | | | | permethrin. Blood was collected before |
| that did not raid crops. Elephants only | | | | dosing, and 2,6,24,48 and 72 hours after the |
| damaged crop of fields that occurred within | | | | treatment from the brachial vein of birds. |
| their home ranges. Field trails of chemical | | | | Enzyme, activities were assayed in the plasma |
| based deterrents and electric fencing should | | | | or serum samples obtained. The assays used |
| be tried to reduce crop damage. Train speeds | | | | were GOT,MHD, GDH, SDH,GAMMA GT and ChE. The |
| need to be reduced to prevent accidental | | | | results showed an increase in plasma and |
| elephant mortality (Williams et al 2001). | | | | serum GOT and gamma-GT levels were found in |
| | | | all animals treated with the previous |
| Â | | | | pesticides. The level of ChE increased in |
| | | | birds after treatment with permethrin. It was |
| Wild Elephant damages: | | | | concluded that the pesticides cause |
| | | | structural and functional changes in the |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â A rapid village | | | | liver and also, the measurement of the |
| and field assessments, data survey showed. | | | | previous parameter activities may be useful |
| Elephants raided crops at a rate of 0.53 | | | | for assessing exposure and sub-lethal effects |
| elephants per day in Indonesia. The frequency | | | | of pesticides on the wildlife (Dahamna et al |
| of crop raiding was related to vegetation | | | | 2004). |
| type along the park border, the size and | | | | |
| presence of rivers, and the distance to the | | | | Â |
| park's Elephant Training Centre (ETC), which | | | | |
| houses about 150 captive elephants. Wild | | | | Â |
| elephants damaged at least 450000Â m2 of | | | | |
| maize, rice, cassava, beans and other annual | | | | 24. IPM and crop losses |
| crops, and close to 900 coconut, banana and | | | | |
| other perennial trees in the area surveyed. | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â The queensland |
| Elephants killed or injured 24 .Villagers try | | | | sugar, industry has recently implemented a |
| to reduce elephant damage by guarding fields, | | | | comprehensive integrated pest management |
| digging trenches between the park and their | | | | (IPM) system to minimize crop losses from two |
| fields, and modifying their cropping | | | | antive rodent species, Rattus sordidus |
| patterns. Elephants-human conflict decreases | | | | (canefield rat) and Melomy burtoni (climbing |
| the probability of support from local people | | | | rat). These species inflicted approximately |
| for conservation efforts. The approaches are | | | | $25M of damage in a major outbreak in the |
| suggested consist of elephant trenches, | | | | 1999-2000 seasons. Both of these rodents are |
| electric fences, external support to affected | | | | listed as common wildlife under the schedules |
| villages, and compensation to villagers for | | | | of the queensland nature Conservation |
| any damage caused (Nyhus et al 2000). | | | | (Wildlife) Regulation 1994. The IPM programme |
| | | | is based on understanding the ecology and |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â This study | | | | biology of each species. It incorporates a |
| explores land use conflict in south east | | | | large-scale monitoring programme aimed at |
| Kajiado District, Kenya. The results of | | | | providing early warning of imminent rodent |
| household surveys conducted with farmers and | | | | build up to avert major outbreaks. The |
| herders in 1977 and 1996 to examine changes | | | | industry has also developed a memorandum |
| in land management strategies are compared. | | | | of understanding with Queensland State |
| The conflict reflects ongoing competition | | | | Government, which delivers on the industry's |
| over access to scarce land and water | | | | pest management needs, while providing an |
| resources between herding, farming and | | | | improved system of accountability for the |
| wildlife are the reason of damage of crops. | | | | taking of two of Queenslands native wildlife |
| This man-animal conflict needs understanding | | | | species. The consensus reached between the |
| the conditions that have created the present | | | | cooperating parties (The Bureau of sugar |
| conflicts (Compbell et al 2000). | | | | Experiment Stations, CANEGROWERS, |
| | | | regionally-based Cane Productivity Services, |
| It is, therefore, suggested that 30% open | | | | and the outcomes can be negotiated between |
| space be used as a basic division for | | | | rural industry and environmental interests |
| stratifying thickets into low -use and | | | | (Hunt et al 2004)Â . |
| high-use categories for deer density | | | | |
| estimation. The proportions of each type | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â In Areas around |
| could be derived from grid-square | | | | Lake Mburo National Park ,large wild animals |
| measurements of aerial photographs (Latham J | | | | wander in close proximity to human settlement |
| 2000). | | | | . This poses serious conflict in terms of |
| | | | crop damage. The integration of conservation |
| Â | | | | with other land uses is difficult where |
| | | | densely settled agricultural land surrounds a |
| Â | | | | protected area potentially containing problem |
| | | | animals, as is the case for several parks in |
| Human elephant conflict | | | | Africa and Asia. The intensity of crop |
| | | | raiding was quantified through the use of |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Human-elephant | | | | random crop quadrants/plots and area |
| conflict (HEC) in Africa occurs wherever | | | | estimation techniques in a portion of raided |
| these two species coincide, and poses serious | | | | fields. The animal species concerned were |
| challenges to wild life managers, local | | | | documented from observations, footprints and |
| communities and elephants alike. Mitigation | | | | any other marks left behind. Three variables |
| requires a details understanding of | | | | were tested as predictors of damage; human |
| underlying patterns and processes. Although | | | | population density, distance from the park |
| temporal patterns of HEC are relatively | | | | boundary and season. In this study data is |
| predictable, spatial variation has shown few | | | | presented regarding crop loss in the |
| universal trends, making it difficult to | | | | different seasons of the year, analysis of |
| predict where conflict will take place. Crop | | | | crop damage variation and animal species |
| raiding was further subdivided into incidents | | | | involved in crop loss. A diverse assemblage |
| involving only male elephants or family | | | | of animals foraged on subsistence crops and |
| groups. A relatively fine-resolution, | | | | analysis of crop damage revealed significant |
| systematic, grid -based method was used to | | | | crop depreciation by wildlife( Kagoro et al |
| assign the locations of conflict incidents, | | | | 2004). |
| and spatial relations with underlying | | | | |
| variables were explored using correlation | | | | Â |
| analysis and logistic regression. Crop | | | | |
| raiding was clustered into distinct conflict | | | | Â |
| zones. Both occurrence and intensity could be | | | | |
| predicted on the basis of the area under | | | | Â |
| cultivation and, for male elephant groups, | | | | |
| proximity to major settlement. Conversely, | | | | 25. Hawai Pest |
| incidents human injury and death were less | | | | |
| predictable but were correlated with | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â The apple snail, |
| proximity to roads. A grid-based geographical | | | | P.canaliculata, is an aquatic freshwater |
| information system (GIS) with a 25km2 | | | | snail native to South America, Originally |
| resolution utilizing cost-effective data | | | | imported to Hawai'i as pets for the aquarium |
| source, combined with simple statistical | | | | trade, they were soon introduced into wetland |
| tools, was capable of identifying spatial | | | | plots known as "lo's" where taro (Colocasia |
| predictors of HEC, At finer resolutions | | | | esculenta), an economically and culturally |
| spatial autocorrelation compromised the | | | | significant crop, is grown. Some individuals |
| analyses. Synthesis and application. These | | | | reasoned that the snails, being edible, could |
| results suggest that spatial correlates of | | | | be harvested as food, and that raising the |
| HEC can be identified, regardless of the sex | | | | snails along with the taro in the "Io's" |
| of the elephants involved. Moreover, the | | | | would provide income supplemental to the taro |
| method described here is fully transferable | | | | harvest with minimum additional input. This |
| to other sites for comparative analysis of | | | | introduction of snails into the taro "lo'i" |
| HEC. Using these results to map vulnerability | | | | however, proved to be a disaster. Farmers |
| will enable the development and deployment of | | | | failed to take into account the voracity , |
| appropriate conflict mitigation strategies, | | | | reproductive potential, and rapid growth of |
| such as guarding, early warning systems, | | | | the snails. Because of the ideal conditions |
| barriers and deterrents. The utility of such | | | | in the taro "lo'i", the snails multiplied |
| methods and their strategic deployment should | | | | rapidly and fed heavily on the taro shoots |
| be assessed alongside alternative land-use | | | | and corns in many cases, destroying a |
| and livelihood strategies that limit | | | | complete crop before harvest time. Hindisight |
| cultivation within the elephant range (Sitati | | | | has shown that the snails are dissipated via |
| et al 2003). | | | | the irrigation system throughout the "lo'i" |
| | | | and then spread to the surrounding wetland |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Human elephant | | | | areas. Large breeding populations are now |
| conflicts (HEC) in west Bengal was an | | | | established in wetland areas on the islands |
| economic loss worth 3.2 crores. This much | | | | of Hawai'e, O'ahu, Kaua'I, and Maui. Some |
| damage occurred in 3368 sq km radius | | | | of these wetlands are wildlife preserves |
| inhibiting 62 elephants (Singh et al 2002) | | | | with state and federal mandates that restrict |
| | | | the potential methods of eradication. |
| Â | | | | Background information is provided on both |
| | | | P.canaliculata and taro to fully explain the |
| 6. Â Â Kerala Survey | | | | challenges and opportunities that this |
| | | | situation presents (Tamaru et al 2006). |
| Crop damage by wild animals in Kerala, India, | | | | |
| was studied from 1993 to 1996. Data were | | | | Â |
| collected from the offices of the Kerala | | | | |
| Forest Department, field survey and from the | | | | 26. Chemical repellents |
| intensive study area at Marayur, Idukki | | | | |
| District. Forty-five species of crops were | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Chemical feeding |
| destroyed by wild animals in Kerala, the | | | | repellents applied to ripening sunflower |
| species commonly destroyed by wild animals | | | | might help reduce blackbird (lcteridae) |
| were paddy, coconut plam , plantains , | | | | damage, which is a chronic agricultural |
| cassava , arecanut, coffee, oil plam , pepper | | | | problems from seed information harvest. |
| , jack tree, mulberry and manago. The main | | | | However, cost are high to develop and |
| animals involved in crop damage were elephant | | | | register new repellents for agricultural use. |
| (Elephas maximus), gaur (Bos gaurus),sambar | | | | In 2003 and 2004, we evaluated feeding |
| (Cervus unicolor), wild boar (Sus scrofa), | | | | repellency of 8 pesticides registered by |
| bonnet macaque (Macaca radiate), common | | | | the Environmental Protection Agency for use |
| langur (Presbytis entellus), blacknaped hare | | | | in sunflower. Caged red-winged blackbirds |
| (Lepus nigricollis) and pea fowl (Pavo | | | | (Agelaius phoeniceus) were fed unshelled |
| cristatus). Among these, elephants and | | | | sunflower seeds treated with the following |
| wild board gave maximum damage . Of the total | | | | pesticides: 5 pyrethroid insecticides, an |
| compensation claimed by the farmers, only | | | | organochlorine, an organophosphorus, and a |
| 8.2% was sanctioned by the Kerala Forest | | | | gungicide. Compared to untreated refernce |
| Department. The highest crop damage (30%) was | | | | groups, feeding rates were reduced for 4 of |
| recorded from the forest ranges coming under | | | | the 5 pyrethroid insecticides. Only the |
| the Northern Circle: pinapple (47%) , sweet | | | | organophosphorus (chlorpyrifos), however, |
| potato (47%), tapioca (42%), alocasia (39%) , | | | | significantly decreased feeding rates. More |
| beans (25%) and plantains (23%) recorded | | | | research on repellency effects of this |
| highest percentage of damage. In the | | | | product in field efficacy trials is probably |
| intensive study area at Marayur, 28 species | | | | warranted based on the results of our cage |
| of crops were damaged and highest damage was | | | | experiments. Depending on timing of |
| during the summer months. At maximum damage | | | | application, registered insecticides with |
| was due to elephant (72%) followed by gaur | | | | blackbird feeding repellency could provide |
| (62%) , sambar (17%) and wild boar (16%) . | | | | supplemental economic benefits to sunflower |
| Tiger (Panthera tigris), panther (leopard) | | | | producers through dual purpose use ((Linz et |
| (Panthera pardus) and wild dog (Conine | | | | al 2006). |
| alpinus) were the main cattle lifters in the | | | | |
| state. A total of 31 deaths and 64 injuries | | | | Â |
| caused by wild animals were recorded from the | | | | |
| state during the period 1983 to 1993. | | | | 27. Persistent organic pollutants (POPS) |
| Thirteen indigenous methods used for | | | | |
| controlling the crop damage had been | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Persistent |
| identified. High voltage electric fencing | | | | organic pollutants (POPs) have spread |
| using energizer was effective for stopping | | | | throughout the global environment to threaten |
| elephants and other herbivores from entering | | | | human health and damage ecosystems, with |
| the agriculture fields. Crop damage is found | | | | evidence of POPs contamination in wildlife, |
| to be linked to the cropping pattern and | | | | human blood, and breast milk documented |
| location of the agriculture fields. Short | | | | worldwide. Based on data from the US Food and |
| term and long-term measures needed to prevent | | | | Drug Administration, this article provides a |
| the crop damage are discussed (Jayson | | | | brief overview of POPs residues in common |
| EA,1999). | | | | foods in the USA food supply. The analysis |
| | | | focuses on 12 chemical compounds now targeted |
| Â | | | | for an international phase out under the |
| | | | Stockholm convention on POPs. The available |
| 7. Â Bird crop damages | | | | information indicates that POPs residues are |
| | | | present in virtually all categories of foods, |
| Â | | | | including baked goods, fruit, vegetables, |
| | | | meat, poultry, and dairy products. Residues |
| Use of non-lethal method to avoid crop | | | | of five or more persistent toxic chemicals in |
| damages by bird have been reported. Blueberry | | | | a single food item are not unusual, with the |
| damages by cedar waxwings (Bombycilla | | | | most commonly found POPs being the pesticides |
| cedrotun were minimized. (Avery et al 2002). | | | | DDT ( and its metabolites, such as DDE) and |
| | | | dieldrin. Estimated daily doses of dieldrin |
| Â | | | | alone exceed the US Environmental Protection |
| | | | Agency and US Agency for Toxic Substances |
| 8. Wild Bird damage | | | | Disease Control reference dose for children. |
| | | | Given the widespread occurrence of POPs in |
| Â | | | | the food supply and the serious health risks |
| | | | associated with even extremely small levels |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â In the northern | | | | of exposure, prevention of further food |
| Great Plains of USA, conflicts between | | | | contamination must be a national health |
| red-winged black birds (Agelaius phoeniceus) | | | | policy priority in every country. |
| and sunflower (Helianthus annus)Â growers | | | | Implementation of the Stockholm Convention |
| have intensified since the late 1960s due | | | | will prevent further accumulation of |
| to the expanded commercial production of | | | | persistent toxic chemicals in food. Early |
| sunflowers. We studied the potential | | | | ratification and rapid implementation of this |
| population effects of the removal of up to 2 | | | | treaty should be an urgent priority for all |
| million red-winged blackbirds annually under | | | | governments (Schafer et al 2002). |
| a 5 year programme of baiting during spring | | | | |
| with DRC-1339 (3-choloro-4 methalalanine) | | | | Â |
| treated rice. They also examined whether | | | | |
| lethal control, in combination with current | | | | 28. Netherland experiences |
| levels of breeding habitat management, would | | | | |
| be cost effective in decreasing depredation | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Traditionally, |
| of sunflower crops during late summer. | | | | pink-footed geese Anser Brachyrhynchus |
| They evaluated the cost benefit ration for 4 | | | | wintering in Denmark, the Netherlands and |
| culling scenarios involving (1) variable | | | | Belgium have used the Danish sites only |
| annual cullus, not exceeding 2 million birds, | | | | during mild winter, rapidly moving southwards |
| with and without density compensation (i.e. | | | | in case of cold spells. Since the 1980s, an |
| ,a positive density-dependent response) on | | | | increasing number of geese have remained on |
| adult survival and (2) culls of 2 million | | | | the Danish wintering grounds despite cold |
| birds annually with and without density | | | | spells, foraging on pastures Because winter |
| compensation .We constructed a red -winged | | | | wheat represented a reliable and profitable |
| blackbird population model represented as | | | | food source even in sever winter, the recent |
| an age-based matrix and calibrated to stable | | | | change in Agricultural practice has enhanced |
| growth. We assumed a total population of 27 | | | | the development of a new wintering strategy |
| million birds on 1 April (week 1), | | | | of pink-footed geese, allowing a northward |
| representing the red-winged blackbird | | | | expansion of their winter range. Potentially, |
| breeding population staging in eastern | | | | this will increase the crop damage conflict |
| Southern Dakota and migrating into North | | | | and may lead to further population growth ( |
| Dakota.Under each culling scenario, we | | | | Therkidsen et al 2000). |
| reduced the stable red-winged blackbird | | | | |
| population (Equally for females and males) | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Enclosure trials |
| and project the population through week 23 of | | | | near Huron, CA in the San Joaquin Valley from |
| the annual cycle (2 Sep). We then evaluated | | | | 12 to 23 January 1999 , determine the |
| the associated costs of the management | | | | efficacy of Flight Control TM (50% |
| relative to potential sunflower crop losses, | | | | anthraquinone) and Mesurol R (75% methiocarb) |
| assuming $0.07 in damage per bird and 4% | | | | in preventing horned lark damage to lettuce |
| loss to other factors. Variable annual culls, | | | | seedlings. Flight control TM (FC) and Mesurol |
| likely the more biologically realistic model | | | | R were evaluated as foliar sprays at |
| scenarios, yielded mean annual removals of 1 | | | | application rates of 2.79 and 2.27 kg ha-1, |
| 240 560 (SE=12 328) birds with density | | | | respectively. Horned lark damage to lettuce |
| compensation and 1 231 620 (SE=28 811) birds | | | | seedlings treated with anthraquinone was |
| without density compensation,, with cost | | | | greater (p=0.015) than for methiocarb R, 60 |
| benefit ratios of 1:2.3 and 1:3.6, | | | | versus 20% , respectively, and seedlings in |
| respectively. Annual intrinsic rates for the | | | | control plots were 100% destroyed. While this |
| model population over the 5 year period | | | | level of damage is probably unacceptable to |
| ranged from 1-4 to 4.8%. Considering | | | | lettuce growers, it should be remembered that |
| potential variability in the effectiveness of | | | | the enclosure situation caused an |
| the cull and the combination of direct and | | | | artificially high bird pressure on the crop. |
| indirect costs,we contend that the | | | | Further studies in open fields under a more |
| realized benefits to sunflower growers by | | | | normal bird pressure are warranted ( York et |
| lethal control of red-winged blackbiards via | | | | al 2000). |
| spring baiting , in combination with current | | | | |
| nonlethal management efforts, would likely be | | | | Â |
| negligible (Blackwell et al 2003). | | | | |
| | | | 29. Ozone injury |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â The efficacy of | | | | |
| hydrolyzed casein (HC) and retail products | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Incidence and |
| that contain HC in reducing deer damage to | | | | severity of visible foliar ozone injury on |
| trees and shrubs was determined in a field | | | | cutleaf coneflower (Rudbeckia laciniata L.) |
| experiments conducted in USA during 2004-05. | | | | and crown-bread (Verbesina Occidentalis |
| The results of the experiments indicate the | | | | Walt). Were determined .It is thus a matter |
| suitability of HC as a deer repellent. | | | | of consideration that zone injury may harm |
| Technical grade HC completely eliminated | | | | vegetation harmed by browsing or even |
| browsing damage to evergreen shrubs | | | | cutting. Ozone injury was greatest on the |
| (Gaultheria shallon) and conifers (Thuja | | | | lower leaves for both species sampled with |
| plicata). Retail sources of HC were not as | | | | over 95% of the injured leaves occurring on |
| effective as the pure hydrolyzed protein | | | | the lower 50% of the plant. This is the first |
| (Kimball et al 2005). | | | | report of foliar ozone injury on these plant |
| | | | species in situ, in the Park, illustrating |
| Â | | | | the great variability in symptom expression |
| | | | with time, and within and between populations |
| Â | | | | ( Chappelka et al 2003). |
| | | | |
| 9. Blackbird damages | | | | Â |
| | | | |
| Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â The economic | | | | 30. Protected arrears and humans |
| impact of blackbirds can be severe to rice | | | | |
| producers in the United States. One approach | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Knowledge of |
| to managing this damage is the application of | | | | conflicts between people and protected areas |
| bird-deterrent chemical to the crop. Previous | | | | is required for the design of sustainable |
| pilot trials suggested that caffeine offered | | | | conservation strategies for the management of |
| potential as a safe, economical bird | | | | most protected areas. The study identifies |
| repellent. In this study, cage feeding | | | | the causes of conflicts between local people |
| trials with female red -winged blackbirds | | | | and the Benous Wildlife Conservation Area |
| and male brown headed cowbirds confirmed that | | | | (BWCA), which includes the Benous National |
| a treatment rate of 25000 ppm caffeine on | | | | Park, In northern Cameroon. Informal |
| rice seed reduced consumption as much as 76% | | | | interviews and questionnaires were |
| . Trials with mixed species blackbirds flocks | | | | administered to 114 households in three |
| in a 0.2-ha flight pen resulted in just 4% | | | | communities, and to 17 park staff and 7 |
| loss of caffine-treated rice compared to 43% | | | | professional hunting guides from July |
| loss of untreated rice. . Field trials of a | | | | -October 1997. Crop damage affected 86% of |
| 10 000 ppm caffeine treatment in Louisiana | | | | the surveyed household, with 31% of crop |
| revealed > 90% of caffeine-treated rice seed | | | | income lost on average, and with the damage |
| remained unconsumed on days 2 and 3 of the | | | | varying significantly between communities. |
| study whereas blackbirds consumed > 80% of | | | | Elephants, baboons, patas monkeys. Warthogs |
| the untreated seed. As a rice seed treatment | | | | and green parrots accounted for 97% of crop |
| to deter blackbirds, caffeine appears to be | | | | damage, with the staple food maize and |
| effective, economical and environmentally | | | | millet being most affected. Of the |
| safe, although additional aquatic toxicity | | | | respondents 27% experienced livestock |
| testing is desirable. Improvements in | | | | depredation, with 18% of livestock income |
| formulation will be needed to make the | | | | lost on average. The civet cat was the |
| compound practical for general agricultural | | | | main predator. The involvement of local |
| spray applications and to extend the | | | | people in illegal activities, their lack |
| adherence of caffeine to rice seeds in field | | | | of access to natural resources, and damage by |
| conditions ((Avery et al 2005). | | | | wildlife were identified as principal causes |
| | | | of conflicts. Local people, park staff and |
| Â | | | | professional hunting guides had diverse and |
| | | | differing perceptions about the causes of the |
| 10. Deer damage | | | | conflicts and made various suggestions for |
| | | | reduction of wildlife damage including animal |
| A questionnaire was distributed to over 2500 | | | | scaring and controlled shooting. We conclude |
| farms to know damage caused by lowland | | | | that, under current wildlife policy, conflict |
| deer to crops, trees and vegetation. Results | | | | between people and BWCA Â (Bonous Wildlife |
| from the questionnaire showed that 69% | | | | Conservation area) is difficult to resolve. |
| (n=1192) of responding farmers had deer on | | | | To reduce conflicts and promote sustainable |
| their holdings and that Roe and Fallow were | | | | conservation, we suggest co-management of |
| the most frequently seen species. On those | | | | wildlife involving all stakeholders, |
| farms with deer present, cereals were the | | | | establishment of crop damage control teams, |
| most commonly damaged crop (44%), but only | | | | and promotion of tangible benefits to  |
| 15% of these farmers claimed that the annual | | | | local people. There may be a requirement for |
| cost of damage to cereals exceeded £500 | | | | site -specificity in management strategies |
| each year for the whole farm. Validation | | | | (Weladji et al 2003). |
| assessments were based on two visits to | | | | |
| assess deer damage to the crop, with a deer | | | | Â |
| species/density assessment during the March | | | | |
| assessment and an assessment of grain yield | | | | 31. Low technology use to avoid damages |
| and quality during the August assessment. | | | | |
| Respondents were generally accurate in the | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â It is |
| density and species of deer reported. The | | | | suggested that an integrated, |
| percentage of the farm suffering damage | | | | community-based, low technological approach |
| attributable to deer was very variable, | | | | will be the most sustainable solution to this |
| generally being higher at the first | | | | conflict ( Osborn et al 2003). |
| assessment than the second. The figures | | | | |
| calculated for yield loss were generally low, | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Blackbirds |
| Farmers were poor at estimating the economic | | | | (lcteridae) annually damage US$5-8 million of |
| impact of deer damage when compared to | | | | ripening sunflower in the northern Great |
| validation data, but a number of parameters | | | | Plains. Baiting blackbirds with |
| may have changed in the two years between the | | | | avicide-treated rice during spring migration |
| questionnaire distribution and validation, | | | | might reduce the regional breeding |
| including changes in deer density, crop | | | | populations. birds can be successfully baited |
| rotations, and the marked drop in grain | | | | with avicide-treated rice placed in corn |
| prices, which may account for some of the | | | | stubble (Linz et al 2003). |
| inaccuracies. There were no statistically | | | | |
| significant relationships between deer damage | | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Plant |
| assessments and yield loss, either for | | | | debris accumulation is viewed as a key factor |
| individual species or both species combined. | | | | determining small mammal abundance and |
| The relationship between Roe deer damage at | | | | potential damage in low-till agricultural |
| the harvest assessment and Roe deer density | | | | ((Stermer et al 2003) areas. |
| was significant (Post et al, 2001). | | | | |
| | | | Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â The projected |
| Wildlife managers must consider the public's | | | | total value of crop yield losses due to |
| preferences for wildlife population levels | | | | wildlife damage for buffer zone villages |
| when determining management policies. 849 | | | | located in Garhwal Himalaya in about Rs.5 38 |
| farmers, hunters and the general public of | | | | 620 (US$15 389). Besides food grain, |
| Maryland. USA, were surveyed in 1996 to | | | | horticultural crops i.e apple, also suffered. |